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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  54            Default: 2.
  55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  58            False: Disables function name normalization.
  59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  63            Default: 3
  64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  66            Default: False
  67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  69            line length.
  70            Default: 80
  71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  72            Default: True
  73    """
  74
  75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  77        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  78        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  80        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  81        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  83        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  85        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  86        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  89        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  93        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  94        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
  95        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
  96        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
  97        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
  98        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
  99        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 100        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 101        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 102        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 103            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 104        ),
 105        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 106            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 107        ),
 108        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 109        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 110        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 111        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 112        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 113        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 114        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 115        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 116        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 117        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 118        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 119        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 120        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 123        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 125        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 127        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 128        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 129        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 130        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 131        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 132        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 133        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 134        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 135        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 136        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
 137        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 138        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 139        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 140        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 141        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 142        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 143        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 144        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 145        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 146        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 147        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 148    }
 149
 150    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 151    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 152    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 153
 154    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 155    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 156    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 157
 158    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 159    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 160
 161    # Always do union distinct or union all
 162    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 163
 164    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 165    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 166
 167    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 168    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 169
 170    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 171    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 172
 173    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 174    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 175
 176    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 177    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 178
 179    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 180    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 181
 182    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 183    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 184
 185    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 186    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 187
 188    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 189    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 190
 191    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 192    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 193
 194    # Whether join hints should be generated
 195    JOIN_HINTS = True
 196
 197    # Whether table hints should be generated
 198    TABLE_HINTS = True
 199
 200    # Whether query hints should be generated
 201    QUERY_HINTS = True
 202
 203    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 204    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 205
 206    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 207    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 208
 209    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 210    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 211
 212    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 213    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 214
 215    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 216    RETURNING_END = True
 217
 218    # Whether to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 219    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 220
 221    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 222    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 223
 224    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 225    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 226
 227    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 228    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 229
 230    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 231    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 232
 233    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 234    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 235    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 236    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 237
 238    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 239    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 240
 241    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 242    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 243
 244    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 245    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 246
 247    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 248    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 249
 250    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 251    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 252
 253    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 254    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 255
 256    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 257    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 258
 259    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 260    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 261
 262    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 263    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 264
 265    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 266    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 267
 268    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 269    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 270
 271    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 272    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 273
 274    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 275    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 276
 277    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 278    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 279
 280    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 281    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 282
 283    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 284    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 285
 286    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 287    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 288
 289    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 290    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 291
 292    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 293    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 294
 295    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 296    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 297
 298    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 299    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 300
 301    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 302    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 303
 304    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 305    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 306
 307    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 308    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 309
 310    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 311    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 312
 313    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 314    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 315    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 316
 317    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 318    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 319
 320    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 321    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 322
 323    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 324    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 325
 326    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 327    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 328
 329    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 330    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 331
 332    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 333    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 334
 335    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 336        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 337        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 338        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 339        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 340        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 341        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 342        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 343        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 344        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 345    }
 346
 347    STAR_MAPPING = {
 348        "except": "EXCEPT",
 349        "replace": "REPLACE",
 350    }
 351
 352    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 353        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 354        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 355        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 356        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 357        "DAYS": "DAY",
 358        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 359        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 360        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 361        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 362    }
 363
 364    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 365        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 366        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 367        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 368        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 369        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 370            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 371            if e.args.get("windows")
 372            else ""
 373        ),
 374    }
 375
 376    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 377
 378    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 379
 380    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 381    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 382
 383    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 384        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 385        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 386        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 387        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 388        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 389        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 390        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 391        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 392        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 393        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 394        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 395        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 396        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 397        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 398        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 399        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 400        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 401        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 402        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 403        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 404        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 405        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 406        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 407        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 408        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 409        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 410        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 411        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 412        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 413        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 414        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 415        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 416        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 417        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 418        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 419        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 420        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 421        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 422        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 423        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 424        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 425        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 426        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 427        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 428        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 429        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 430        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 431        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 432        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 433        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 434        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 435        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 439        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 442        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 444        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 445        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 448        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 449        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 450        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 452        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 453        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 455        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 457        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 458        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 459        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 460    }
 461
 462    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 463    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 464
 465    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 466    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 467        exp.Create,
 468        exp.Delete,
 469        exp.Drop,
 470        exp.From,
 471        exp.Insert,
 472        exp.Join,
 473        exp.Select,
 474        exp.Union,
 475        exp.Update,
 476        exp.Where,
 477        exp.With,
 478    )
 479
 480    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 481    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 482        exp.Binary,
 483        exp.Union,
 484    )
 485
 486    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 487    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 488        exp.Column,
 489        exp.Literal,
 490        exp.Neg,
 491        exp.Paren,
 492    )
 493
 494    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 495        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 496        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 497        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 498        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 499    }
 500
 501    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 502    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 503
 504    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 505
 506    __slots__ = (
 507        "pretty",
 508        "identify",
 509        "normalize",
 510        "pad",
 511        "_indent",
 512        "normalize_functions",
 513        "unsupported_level",
 514        "max_unsupported",
 515        "leading_comma",
 516        "max_text_width",
 517        "comments",
 518        "dialect",
 519        "unsupported_messages",
 520        "_escaped_quote_end",
 521        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 522    )
 523
 524    def __init__(
 525        self,
 526        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 527        identify: str | bool = False,
 528        normalize: bool = False,
 529        pad: int = 2,
 530        indent: int = 2,
 531        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 532        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 533        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 534        leading_comma: bool = False,
 535        max_text_width: int = 80,
 536        comments: bool = True,
 537        dialect: DialectType = None,
 538    ):
 539        import sqlglot
 540        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 541
 542        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 543        self.identify = identify
 544        self.normalize = normalize
 545        self.pad = pad
 546        self._indent = indent
 547        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 548        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 549        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 550        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 551        self.comments = comments
 552        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 553
 554        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 555        self.normalize_functions = (
 556            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 557        )
 558
 559        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 560        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 561            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 562        )
 563        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 564            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 565        )
 566
 567    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 568        """
 569        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 570
 571        Args:
 572            expression: The syntax tree.
 573            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 574                it is safer to copy.
 575
 576        Returns:
 577            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 578        """
 579        if copy:
 580            expression = expression.copy()
 581
 582        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 583
 584        self.unsupported_messages = []
 585        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 586
 587        if self.pretty:
 588            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 589
 590        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 591            return sql
 592
 593        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 594            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 595                logger.warning(msg)
 596        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 597            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 598
 599        return sql
 600
 601    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 602        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 603        if (
 604            not expression.parent
 605            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 606            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 607        ):
 608            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 609
 610            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 611
 612        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 613            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 614
 615            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 616
 617        return expression
 618
 619    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 620        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 621            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 622        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 623
 624    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 625        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 626
 627    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 628        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 629
 630    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 631        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 632        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 633        return comment
 634
 635    def maybe_comment(
 636        self,
 637        sql: str,
 638        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 639        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 640    ) -> str:
 641        comments = (
 642            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 643            if self.comments
 644            else None
 645        )
 646
 647        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 648            return sql
 649
 650        comments_sql = " ".join(
 651            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 652        )
 653
 654        if not comments_sql:
 655            return sql
 656
 657        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 658            return (
 659                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 660                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 661                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 662            )
 663
 664        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 665
 666    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 667        this_sql = self.indent(
 668            (
 669                self.sql(expression)
 670                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 671                else self.sql(expression, "this")
 672            ),
 673            level=1,
 674            pad=0,
 675        )
 676        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 677
 678    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 679        original = self.identify
 680        self.identify = False
 681        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 682        self.identify = original
 683        return result
 684
 685    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 686        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 687            return name.upper()
 688        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 689            return name.lower()
 690        return name
 691
 692    def indent(
 693        self,
 694        sql: str,
 695        level: int = 0,
 696        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 697        skip_first: bool = False,
 698        skip_last: bool = False,
 699    ) -> str:
 700        if not self.pretty:
 701            return sql
 702
 703        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 704        lines = sql.split("\n")
 705
 706        return "\n".join(
 707            (
 708                line
 709                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 710                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 711            )
 712            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 713        )
 714
 715    def sql(
 716        self,
 717        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 718        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 719        comment: bool = True,
 720    ) -> str:
 721        if not expression:
 722            return ""
 723
 724        if isinstance(expression, str):
 725            return expression
 726
 727        if key:
 728            value = expression.args.get(key)
 729            if value:
 730                return self.sql(value)
 731            return ""
 732
 733        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 734
 735        if callable(transform):
 736            sql = transform(self, expression)
 737        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 738            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 739
 740            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 741                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 742            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 743                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 744            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 745                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 746            else:
 747                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 748        else:
 749            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 750
 751        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 752
 753    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 754        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 755        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 756        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 757
 758    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 759        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 760        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 761        options = expression.args.get("options")
 762        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 763        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 764        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 765        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 766        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 767
 768    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 769        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 770            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 771        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 772        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 773
 774    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 775        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 776
 777        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 778            join_mark = ""
 779            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 780
 781        column = ".".join(
 782            self.sql(part)
 783            for part in (
 784                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 785                expression.args.get("db"),
 786                expression.args.get("table"),
 787                expression.args.get("this"),
 788            )
 789            if part
 790        )
 791
 792        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 793
 794    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 795        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 796        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 797        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 798        return f"{position}{this}"
 799
 800    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 801        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 802        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 803        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 804        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 805        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 806        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 807        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 808        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 809
 810        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 811            kind = ""
 812
 813        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 814
 815    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 816        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 817        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 818        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 819
 820    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 821        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 822        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 823            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 824        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 825            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 826        else:
 827            persisted = ""
 828        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 829
 830    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 831        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 832
 833    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 834        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 835            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 836        else:
 837            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 838
 839        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 840
 841    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 842        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 843    ) -> str:
 844        this = ""
 845        if expression.this is not None:
 846            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 847            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 848
 849        start = expression.args.get("start")
 850        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 851        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 852        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 853        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 854        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 855        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 856        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 857        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 858        cycle_sql = ""
 859
 860        if cycle is not None:
 861            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 862            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 863
 864        sequence_opts = ""
 865        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 866            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 867            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 868
 869        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 870        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 871
 872        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 873
 874    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 875        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 876    ) -> str:
 877        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 878        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 879        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 880
 881    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 882        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 883    ) -> str:
 884        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 885
 886    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 887        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 888
 889    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 890        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 891
 892    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 893        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 894        if desc is not None:
 895            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 896        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 897
 898    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 899        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 900        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 901        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 902        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 903        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 904        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 905        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 906
 907    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 908        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 909
 910    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 911        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 912        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 913        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 914
 915        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 916
 917        properties_sql = ""
 918        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 919            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 920        ):
 921            properties_sql = self.sql(
 922                exp.Properties(
 923                    expressions=[
 924                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 925                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 926                    ]
 927                )
 928            )
 929
 930        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 931        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 932
 933        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 934        if expression_sql:
 935            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 936
 937            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 938                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 939                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 940                        exp.Properties(
 941                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 942                        ),
 943                        wrapped=False,
 944                    )
 945                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 946                else:
 947                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 948
 949        postindex_props_sql = ""
 950        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 951            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 952                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 953                wrapped=False,
 954                prefix=" ",
 955            )
 956
 957        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 958        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 959        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 960
 961        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 962        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 963
 964        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 965        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 966            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 967                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 968                sep=" ",
 969                prefix=" ",
 970                wrapped=False,
 971            )
 972
 973        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 974
 975        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 976        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 977            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 978                exp.Properties(
 979                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 980                ),
 981                sep=" ",
 982                prefix=" ",
 983                wrapped=False,
 984            )
 985
 986        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 987        no_schema_binding = (
 988            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 989        )
 990
 991        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 992        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 993
 994        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 995        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 996
 997    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
 998        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
 999        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1000        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1001        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1002        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1003        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1004        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1005        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1006        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1007        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1008
1009        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1010        if cache is None:
1011            cache_str = ""
1012        elif cache is True:
1013            cache_str = " CACHE"
1014        else:
1015            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1016
1017        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1018        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1019
1020        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1021
1022    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1023        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1024        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1025        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1026        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1027
1028    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1029        style = expression.args.get("style")
1030        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1031        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1032
1033    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1034        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1035        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1036
1037    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1038        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1039        if with_:
1040            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1041        return sql
1042
1043    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1044        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1045        recursive = (
1046            "RECURSIVE "
1047            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1048            else ""
1049        )
1050
1051        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1052
1053    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1054        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1055
1056        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1057        if materialized is False:
1058            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1059        elif materialized:
1060            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1061
1062        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1063
1064    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1065        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1066        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1067        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1068
1069        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1070            columns = ""
1071            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1072
1073        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1074            alias = "_t"
1075
1076        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1077
1078    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1079        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1080        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1081            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1082        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1083
1084    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1085        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1086        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1087            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1088        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1089
1090    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1091        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1092        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1093            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1094        return this
1095
1096    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1097        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1098        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1099
1100        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1101            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1102            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1103
1104        if escape:
1105            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1106        else:
1107            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1108
1109        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1110        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1111
1112    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1113        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1114        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1115
1116    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1117        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1118        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1119        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1120        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1121
1122    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1123        type_value = expression.this
1124
1125        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1126            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1127        else:
1128            type_sql = (
1129                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1130                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1131                else type_value
1132            )
1133
1134        nested = ""
1135        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1136        values = ""
1137
1138        if interior:
1139            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1140                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1141                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1142                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1143                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1144                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1145            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1146                nested = f" {interior}"
1147            else:
1148                nested = f"({interior})"
1149
1150        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1151        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1152            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1153            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1154        ):
1155            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1156
1157        return type_sql
1158
1159    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1160        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1161        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1162        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1163        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1164
1165    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1166        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1167        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1168        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1169        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1170        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1171        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1172        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1173        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1174        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1175        if self.RETURNING_END:
1176            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1177        else:
1178            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1179        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1180
1181    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1182        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1183        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1184        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1185        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1186        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1187        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1188        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1189        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1190        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1191        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1192        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1193
1194    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1195        return self.set_operations(expression)
1196
1197    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1198        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1199
1200    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1201        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1202        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1203        count = expression.args.get("count")
1204        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1205        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1206            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1207        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1208        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1209
1210    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1211        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1212            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1213            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1214            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1215
1216        agg = expression.this
1217        agg_arg = agg.this
1218        cond = expression.expression.this
1219        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1220        return self.sql(agg)
1221
1222    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1223        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1224            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1225            return ""
1226
1227        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1228
1229    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1230        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1231        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1232        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1233        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1234        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1235        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1236        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1237        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1238        if include:
1239            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1240        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1241        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1242        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1243        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1244
1245        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
1246
1247    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1248        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1249        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1250        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1251        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1252        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1253        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1254        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1255
1256        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1257
1258        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1259        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1260
1261    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1262        text = expression.name
1263        lower = text.lower()
1264        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1265        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1266        if (
1267            expression.quoted
1268            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1269            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1270            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1271        ):
1272            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1273        return text
1274
1275    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1276        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1277        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1278        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1279        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1280        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1281
1282    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1283        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1284        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1285
1286    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1287        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1288
1289    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1290        root_properties = []
1291        with_properties = []
1292
1293        for p in expression.expressions:
1294            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1295            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1296                with_properties.append(p)
1297            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1298                root_properties.append(p)
1299
1300        return self.root_properties(
1301            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1302        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1303
1304    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1305        if properties.expressions:
1306            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1307        return ""
1308
1309    def properties(
1310        self,
1311        properties: exp.Properties,
1312        prefix: str = "",
1313        sep: str = ", ",
1314        suffix: str = "",
1315        wrapped: bool = True,
1316    ) -> str:
1317        if properties.expressions:
1318            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1319            if expressions:
1320                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1321                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1322        return ""
1323
1324    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1325        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1326
1327    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1328        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1329        for p in properties.expressions:
1330            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1331            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1332                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1333            else:
1334                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1335
1336        return properties_locs
1337
1338    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1339        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1340            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1341        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1342
1343    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1344        property_cls = expression.__class__
1345        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1346            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1347
1348        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1349        if not property_name:
1350            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1351
1352        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1353
1354    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1355        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1356            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1357            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1358
1359            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1360            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1361                like = f"({like})"
1362
1363            return like
1364
1365        if expression.expressions:
1366            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1367
1368        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1369        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1370
1371    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1372        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1373        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1374        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1375
1376    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1377        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1378        local = expression.args.get("local")
1379        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1380        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1381        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1382        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1383        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1384
1385    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1386        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1387        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1388        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1389
1390    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1391        if expression.args.get("default"):
1392            property = "DEFAULT"
1393        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1394            property = "ON"
1395        else:
1396            property = "OFF"
1397        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1398
1399    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1400        if expression.args.get("no"):
1401            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1402        if expression.args.get("default"):
1403            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1404
1405        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1406        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1407
1408    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1409        default = expression.args.get("default")
1410        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1411        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1412        if default or minimum or maximum:
1413            if default:
1414                prop = "DEFAULT"
1415            elif minimum:
1416                prop = "MINIMUM"
1417            else:
1418                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1419            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1420        units = expression.args.get("units")
1421        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1422        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1423
1424    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1425        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1426        always = expression.args.get("always")
1427        default = expression.args.get("default")
1428        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1429        never = expression.args.get("never")
1430
1431        if autotemp is not None:
1432            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1433        elif always:
1434            prop = "ALWAYS"
1435        elif default:
1436            prop = "DEFAULT"
1437        elif manual:
1438            prop = "MANUAL"
1439        elif never:
1440            prop = "NEVER"
1441        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1442
1443    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1444        no = expression.args.get("no")
1445        no = " NO" if no else ""
1446        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1447        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1448        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1449        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1450        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1451
1452    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1453        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1454            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1455        if expression.this:
1456            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1457            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1458            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1459
1460        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1461        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1462        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1463
1464    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1465        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1466
1467        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1468        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1469            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1470        else:
1471            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1472
1473        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1474
1475    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1476        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1477        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1478        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1479        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1480        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1481        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1482        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1483
1484    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1485        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1486        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1487        statistics_sql = ""
1488        if statistics is not None:
1489            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1490        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1491
1492    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1493        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1494
1495        if expression.this:
1496            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1497            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1498
1499            if expression.expression:
1500                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1501                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1502
1503            sql = f"{sql})"
1504
1505        return f"{sql})"
1506
1507    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1508        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1509        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1510
1511        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1512            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1513        else:
1514            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1515
1516        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1517        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1518        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1519        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1520        if is_function:
1521            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1522        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1523
1524        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1525        partition_sql = (
1526            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1527        )
1528        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1529        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1530        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1531        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1532        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1533        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1534        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1535
1536        if self.RETURNING_END:
1537            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1538        else:
1539            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1540
1541        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1542        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1543
1544    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1545        return self.set_operations(expression)
1546
1547    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1548        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1549
1550    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1551        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1552
1553    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1554        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1555        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1556        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1557        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1558        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1559
1560    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1561        return expression.name
1562
1563    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1564        return expression.name
1565
1566    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1567        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1568
1569        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1570        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1571
1572        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1573        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1574        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1575
1576        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1577        if expressions:
1578            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1579            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1580
1581        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1582
1583    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1584        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1585
1586    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1587        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1588        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1589        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1590        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1591        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1592        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1593        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1594        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1595        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1596        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1597        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1598        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1599        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1600
1601    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1602        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1603
1604    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1605        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1606        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1607        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1608        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1609
1610    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1611        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1612        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1613        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1614        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1615
1616    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1617        return ".".join(
1618            self.sql(part)
1619            for part in (
1620                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1621                expression.args.get("db"),
1622                expression.args.get("this"),
1623            )
1624            if part is not None
1625        )
1626
1627    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1628        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1629        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1630        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1631        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1632        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1633        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1634        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1635        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1636        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1637        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1638        joins = self.indent(
1639            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1640        )
1641        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1642
1643        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1644        if file_format:
1645            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1646            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1647            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1648
1649        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1650        if ordinality:
1651            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1652            alias = ""
1653
1654        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1655        if when:
1656            table = f"{table} {when}"
1657
1658        return f"{only}{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1659
1660    def tablesample_sql(
1661        self,
1662        expression: exp.TableSample,
1663        sep: str = " AS ",
1664        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1665    ) -> str:
1666        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1667            table = expression.this.copy()
1668            table.set("alias", None)
1669            this = self.sql(table)
1670            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1671        else:
1672            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1673            alias = ""
1674
1675        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1676        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1677        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1678        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1679        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1680        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1681        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1682        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1683        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1684
1685        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1686        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1687            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1688
1689        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1690        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1691            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1692
1693        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1694        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1695            expr = f"({expr})"
1696
1697        return (
1698            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1699        )
1700
1701    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1702        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1703
1704        if expression.this:
1705            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1706            if not expressions:
1707                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1708
1709            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1710            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1711            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1712            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1713            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1714
1715        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1716        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1717        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1718        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1719        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1720        if include_nulls is not None:
1721            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1722        else:
1723            nulls = ""
1724        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1725
1726    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1727        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1728        kind = expression.text("kind")
1729        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1730        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1731
1732    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1733        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1734
1735    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1736        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1737        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1738        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1739        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1740        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1741        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1742        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1743        if self.RETURNING_END:
1744            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1745        else:
1746            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1747        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1748        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1749
1750    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1751        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1752
1753        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1754        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1755            args = self.expressions(expression)
1756            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1757            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1758            values = (
1759                f"({values})"
1760                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1761                else values
1762            )
1763            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1764
1765        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1766        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1767        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1768
1769        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1770
1771        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1772            row = tup.expressions
1773
1774            if i == 0 and column_names:
1775                row = [
1776                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1777                ]
1778
1779            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1780
1781        if self.pretty:
1782            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1783            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1784            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1785            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1786            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1787
1788        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1789        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1790        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1791
1792    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1793        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1794
1795    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1796        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1797        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1798        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1799
1800    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1801        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1802
1803    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1804        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1805
1806        if expression.args.get("all"):
1807            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1808
1809        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1810        grouping_sets = (
1811            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1812        )
1813
1814        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1815        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1816            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1817        else:
1818            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1819            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1820
1821        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1822        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1823            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1824        else:
1825            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1826            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1827
1828        groupings = csv(
1829            grouping_sets,
1830            cube_sql,
1831            rollup_sql,
1832            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1833            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1834        )
1835
1836        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1837            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1838
1839        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1840
1841    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1842        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1843        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1844
1845    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1846        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1847        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1848        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1849        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1850        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1851        return start + connect
1852
1853    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1854        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1855
1856    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1857        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1858            side = None
1859        else:
1860            side = expression.side
1861
1862        op_sql = " ".join(
1863            op
1864            for op in (
1865                expression.method,
1866                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1867                side,
1868                expression.kind,
1869                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1870            )
1871            if op
1872        )
1873        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1874        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1875        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1876        using = expression.args.get("using")
1877
1878        if not on_sql and using:
1879            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1880
1881        this = expression.this
1882        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1883
1884        if on_sql:
1885            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1886            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1887            if using:
1888                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1889            else:
1890                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1891        elif not op_sql:
1892            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1893                return f" {this_sql}"
1894
1895            return f", {this_sql}"
1896
1897        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1898        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
1899
1900    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1901        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1902        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1903        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1904
1905    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1906        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1907
1908        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1909        if cross_apply is True:
1910            op = "INNER JOIN "
1911        elif cross_apply is False:
1912            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1913        else:
1914            op = ""
1915
1916        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1917
1918    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1919        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1920
1921        if expression.args.get("view"):
1922            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1923            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1924            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1925            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1926            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1927            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1928
1929        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1930        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1931        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
1932
1933    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1934        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1935
1936        args = [
1937            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1938            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1939            if e
1940        ]
1941
1942        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1943        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1944        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1945        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1946
1947        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
1948
1949    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1950        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1951        value = expression.expression
1952        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1953        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1954        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1955        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
1956
1957    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1958        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1959        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1960        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1961        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1962        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1963        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1964        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1965        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1966
1967    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1968        expressions = (
1969            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1970        )
1971        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1972        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1973
1974    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1975        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1976
1977    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1978        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1979            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1980            return ""
1981
1982        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1983        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1984        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1985        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1986
1987        if wait is not None:
1988            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1989                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1990            else:
1991                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1992
1993        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1994
1995    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1996        text = expression.this or ""
1997        if expression.is_string:
1998            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1999        return text
2000
2001    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2002        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2003            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2004            text = "".join(
2005                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2006            )
2007
2008        if self.pretty:
2009            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
2010
2011        return text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
2012
2013    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2014        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2015        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2016        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2017        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2018        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2019        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2020        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2021        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2022        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2023        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2024        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2025
2026    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2027        return "NULL"
2028
2029    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2030        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2031
2032    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2033        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2034        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2035        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2036        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2037        interpolated_values = [
2038            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2039            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2040        ]
2041        interpolate = (
2042            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2043        )
2044        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2045
2046    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2047        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2048        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2049        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2050        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2051        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2052        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2053        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2054
2055    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2056        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2057
2058    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2059        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2060
2061    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2062        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2063
2064    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2065        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2066        asc = not desc
2067
2068        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2069        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2070        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2071        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2072        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2073
2074        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2075
2076        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2077        nulls_sort_change = ""
2078        if nulls_first and (
2079            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2080        ):
2081            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2082        elif (
2083            nulls_last
2084            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2085            and not nulls_are_last
2086        ):
2087            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2088
2089        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2090        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2091            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2092            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2093                self.unsupported(
2094                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2095                )
2096                nulls_sort_change = ""
2097            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2098                if expression.this.is_int:
2099                    self.unsupported(
2100                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2101                    )
2102                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2103                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2104                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2105                nulls_sort_change = ""
2106
2107        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2108        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2109
2110        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2111
2112    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2113        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2114        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2115        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2116        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2117        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2118        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2119        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2120        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2121        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2122        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2123        definition_sqls = [
2124            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2125            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2126        ]
2127        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2128        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2129        body = "".join(
2130            (
2131                partition,
2132                order,
2133                measures,
2134                rows,
2135                after,
2136                pattern,
2137                define,
2138            )
2139        )
2140        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2141        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2142        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2143
2144    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2145        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2146
2147        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2148            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2149        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2150            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2151
2152        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2153        if options:
2154            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2155
2156        return csv(
2157            *sqls,
2158            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2159            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2160            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2161            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2162            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2163            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2164            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2165            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2166            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2167            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2168            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2169            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2170            options,
2171            sep="",
2172        )
2173
2174    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2175        return ""
2176
2177    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2178        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2179    ) -> t.List[str]:
2180        return [
2181            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2182            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2183        ]
2184
2185    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2186        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2187        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2188        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2189
2190    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2191        into = expression.args.get("into")
2192        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2193            into.pop()
2194
2195        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2196        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2197        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2198        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2199
2200        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2201        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2202            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2203            limit.pop()
2204        else:
2205            top = ""
2206
2207        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2208
2209        if kind:
2210            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2211                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2212            else:
2213                if kind == "STRUCT":
2214                    expressions = self.expressions(
2215                        sqls=[
2216                            self.sql(
2217                                exp.Struct(
2218                                    expressions=[
2219                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2220                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2221                                        else e
2222                                        for e in expression.expressions
2223                                    ]
2224                                )
2225                            )
2226                        ]
2227                    )
2228                kind = ""
2229
2230        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2231        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2232        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2233        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2234        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2235            expression,
2236            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2237            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2238            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2239        )
2240
2241        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2242
2243        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2244            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2245                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2246            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2247                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2248            else:
2249                table_kind = ""
2250            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2251
2252        return sql
2253
2254    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2255        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2256        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2257        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2258
2259    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2260        if expression.expressions:
2261            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2262        return ""
2263
2264    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2265        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2266        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2267        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2268        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2269        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2270
2271    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2272        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2273        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2274
2275    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2276        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2277        kind = expression.text("kind")
2278        if kind:
2279            kind = f"{kind}."
2280        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2281
2282    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2283        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2284
2285    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2286        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2287        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2288
2289        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2290        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2291
2292        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2293        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2294
2295    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2296        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2297        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2298
2299    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2300        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2301        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2302
2303        while stack:
2304            node = stack.pop()
2305
2306            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2307                stack.append(node.expression)
2308                stack.append(
2309                    self.maybe_comment(
2310                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2311                        expression=node.this,
2312                        comments=node.comments,
2313                    )
2314                )
2315                stack.append(node.this)
2316            else:
2317                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2318
2319        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2320        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2321        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2322
2323    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2324        return self.set_operations(expression)
2325
2326    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2327        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2328        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2329        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2330        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2331
2332    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2333        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2334
2335        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2336        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2337
2338        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2339            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2340                alias.append("columns", offset)
2341
2342        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2343            columns = alias.columns
2344            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2345        else:
2346            alias = self.sql(alias)
2347
2348        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2349        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2350            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2351        else:
2352            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2353                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2354            elif offset:
2355                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2356            else:
2357                suffix = alias
2358
2359        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2360
2361    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2362        return ""
2363
2364    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2365        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2366        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2367
2368    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2369        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2370        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2371        order = expression.args.get("order")
2372        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2373        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2374        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2375        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2376
2377        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2378
2379        first = expression.args.get("first")
2380        if first is None:
2381            first = ""
2382        else:
2383            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2384
2385        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2386            return f"{this} {alias}"
2387
2388        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2389        return f"{this} ({args})"
2390
2391    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2392        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2393        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2394
2395    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2396        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2397        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2398        end = (
2399            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2400            or "CURRENT ROW"
2401        )
2402        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2403
2404    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2405        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2406        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2407        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2408
2409    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2410        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2411        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2412        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2413        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2414
2415    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2416        expressions = apply_index_offset(
2417            expression.this,
2418            expression.expressions,
2419            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2420        )
2421        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2422        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2423
2424    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2425        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2426
2427    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2428        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2429        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2430            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2431                this = self.wrap(this)
2432            return f"ANY{this}"
2433        return f"ANY {this}"
2434
2435    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2436        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2437
2438    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2439        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2440        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2441
2442        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2443            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2444            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2445
2446        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2447
2448        if default:
2449            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2450
2451        statements.append("END")
2452
2453        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2454            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2455
2456        return " ".join(statements)
2457
2458    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2459        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2460        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2461        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2462
2463    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2464        order = expression.args.get("order")
2465        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2466        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2467
2468    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2469        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2470        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2471        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2472
2473    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2474        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2475
2476        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2477            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2478        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2479            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2480        else:
2481            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2482
2483    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2484        args = expression.expressions
2485        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2486            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2487
2488        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2489            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
2490
2491        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2492            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2493
2494        return args
2495
2496    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2497        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2498
2499        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2500        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2501            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2502
2503        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2504
2505    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2506        return self.func(
2507            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2508        )
2509
2510    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2511        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2512        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2513
2514    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2515        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2516        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2517        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2518        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2519        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2520        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2521        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2522        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2523
2524    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2525        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2526        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2527        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2528        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2529
2530    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2531        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2532
2533    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2534        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2535        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2536        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2537
2538    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2539        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2540
2541    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2542        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2543        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2544
2545    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2546        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2547            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2548            if not callable(transform):
2549                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2550                return ""
2551
2552            return transform(self, expression)
2553
2554        if isinstance(expression, int):
2555            return str(expression)
2556
2557        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2558            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2559            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2560        else:
2561            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2562            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2563
2564        return escaped
2565
2566    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2567        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2568
2569    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2570        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2571        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2572
2573        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2574        if unique_keys is not None:
2575            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2576        else:
2577            unique_keys = ""
2578
2579        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2580        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2581        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2582        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2583
2584        return self.func(
2585            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2586            *expression.expressions,
2587            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2588        )
2589
2590    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2591        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2592
2593    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2594        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2595        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2596        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2597        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2598        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2599        return self.func(
2600            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2601        )
2602
2603    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2604        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2605        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2606        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2607        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2608        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2609        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2610        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2611        return self.func(
2612            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2613            this,
2614            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2615        )
2616
2617    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2618        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2619        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2620        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2621
2622        if nested_schema:
2623            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2624
2625        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2626        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2627        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2628        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2629
2630    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2631        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2632
2633    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2634        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2635        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2636        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2637        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2638        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2639        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2640        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2641        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2642        return self.func(
2643            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2644        )
2645
2646    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2647        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2648        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2649        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2650        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2651        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2652        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2653
2654    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2655        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2656        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2657        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2658        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2659        with_ = (
2660            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2661            if expressions
2662            else ""
2663        )
2664        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2665
2666    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2667        query = expression.args.get("query")
2668        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2669        field = expression.args.get("field")
2670        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2671
2672        if query:
2673            in_sql = self.wrap(self.sql(query))
2674        elif unnest:
2675            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2676        elif field:
2677            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2678        else:
2679            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2680
2681        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2682
2683    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2684        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2685
2686    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2687        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2688        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2689            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2690        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2691
2692        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2693            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2694            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2695
2696        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2697        if this:
2698            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2699            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2700
2701        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2702
2703    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2704        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2705
2706    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2707        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2708        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2709        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2710        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2711        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2712        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2713
2714    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2715        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2716
2717    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2718        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2719        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2720
2721    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2722        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2723        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2724        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2725        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2726
2727    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2728        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2729
2730    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2731        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2732        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2733        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2734
2735    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2736        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2737        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2738
2739        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2740            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2741        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2742            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2743
2744        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2745
2746    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2747        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2748
2749    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2750        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2751        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2752        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2753
2754    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2755        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2756        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2757        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2758
2759    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2760        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2761        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2762        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2763
2764    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2765        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2766
2767    def and_sql(
2768        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2769    ) -> str:
2770        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2771
2772    def or_sql(
2773        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2774    ) -> str:
2775        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2776
2777    def xor_sql(
2778        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2779    ) -> str:
2780        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2781
2782    def connector_sql(
2783        self,
2784        expression: exp.Connector,
2785        op: str,
2786        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2787    ) -> str:
2788        if stack is not None:
2789            if expression.expressions:
2790                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2791            else:
2792                stack.append(expression.right)
2793                if expression.comments:
2794                    for comment in expression.comments:
2795                        op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2796                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2797            return op
2798
2799        stack = [expression]
2800        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2801        ops = set()
2802
2803        while stack:
2804            node = stack.pop()
2805            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2806                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2807            else:
2808                sql = self.sql(node)
2809                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2810                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2811                else:
2812                    sqls.append(sql)
2813
2814        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2815        return sep.join(sqls)
2816
2817    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2818        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2819
2820    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2821        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2822
2823    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2824        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2825
2826    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2827        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2828
2829    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2830        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2831
2832    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2833        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2834
2835    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2836        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2837        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2838        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2839        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2840        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2841        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2842        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2843
2844    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2845        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2846        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2847
2848    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2849        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2850
2851    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2852        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2853            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2854        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2855
2856    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2857        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2858
2859    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2860        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2861        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2862        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2863        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2864        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2865
2866    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2867        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2868        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2869        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2870        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2871        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2872        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2873        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2874        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2875        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2876
2877    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2878        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2879        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2880        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2881        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2882
2883        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2884            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2885
2886        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2887
2888    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2889        return "BEGIN"
2890
2891    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2892        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2893        if chain is not None:
2894            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2895
2896        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2897
2898    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2899        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2900        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2901        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2902
2903    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2904        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2905
2906        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2907        if dtype:
2908            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2909            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2910            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2911            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2912            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2913
2914        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2915        if default:
2916            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2917
2918        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2919        if comment:
2920            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2921
2922        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2923            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2924
2925        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2926
2927    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2928        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2929            # Remove db from tables
2930            expression = expression.transform(
2931                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2932            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
2933        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2934        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2935
2936    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
2937        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2938        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
2939        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
2940        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
2941
2942    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2943        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2944
2945        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2946            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2947        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2948            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2949        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2950            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2951        else:
2952            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2953
2954        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2955        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2956        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2957        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
2958        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
2959
2960    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2961        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2962            return self.expressions(
2963                expression,
2964                key="actions",
2965                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2966            )
2967        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
2968
2969    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2970        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2971        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2972        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2973
2974    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2975        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
2976
2977    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2978        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2979
2980        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
2981            case = exp.case()
2982            for arg in expression.expressions:
2983                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
2984            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
2985
2986        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2987
2988        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2989        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2990        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2991
2992    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2993        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
2994
2995    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2996        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
2997
2998    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
2999        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3000        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3001        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3002        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3003
3004    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3005        return self.sql(
3006            exp.Cast(
3007                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3008                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3009            )
3010        )
3011
3012    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3013        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3014            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
3015        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3016
3017    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3018        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3019
3020        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3021            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3022
3023        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3024            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3025                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3026
3027        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3028            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3029                return self.sql(
3030                    exp.cast(
3031                        l / r,
3032                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3033                    )
3034                )
3035
3036        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3037
3038    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3039        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3040
3041    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3042        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3043
3044    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3045        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3046
3047    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3048        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3049
3050    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3051        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3052
3053    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3054        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3055
3056    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3057        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3058
3059    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3060        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3061
3062    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3063        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3064
3065    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3066        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3067
3068    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3069        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3070
3071    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3072        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3073            return self.sql(
3074                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3075            )
3076        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3077
3078    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3079        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3080
3081    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3082        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3083
3084    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3085        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3086
3087    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3088        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3089
3090    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3091        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3092
3093    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3094        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3095
3096    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3097        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3098
3099    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3100        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3101
3102    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3103        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3104
3105    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3106        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3107
3108    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3109        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3110
3111    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3112        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3113
3114    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3115        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3116
3117    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3118        this = expression.this
3119        expr = expression.expression
3120
3121        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3122            this, expr = expr, this
3123        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3124            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3125                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3126
3127            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3128
3129        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3130
3131    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3132        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3133        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3134        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3135        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3136        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3137
3138    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3139        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3140        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3141
3142    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3143        args = []
3144
3145        for key in expression.arg_types:
3146            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3147
3148            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3149                for value in arg_value:
3150                    args.append(value)
3151            elif arg_value is not None:
3152                args.append(arg_value)
3153
3154        if self.normalize_functions:
3155            name = expression.sql_name()
3156        else:
3157            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3158
3159        return self.func(name, *args)
3160
3161    def func(
3162        self,
3163        name: str,
3164        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3165        prefix: str = "(",
3166        suffix: str = ")",
3167    ) -> str:
3168        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3169
3170    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3171        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3172        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
3173            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3174        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3175
3176    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
3177        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
3178
3179    def format_time(
3180        self,
3181        expression: exp.Expression,
3182        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3183        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3184    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3185        return format_time(
3186            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3187            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3188            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3189        )
3190
3191    def expressions(
3192        self,
3193        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3194        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3195        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3196        flat: bool = False,
3197        indent: bool = True,
3198        skip_first: bool = False,
3199        sep: str = ", ",
3200        prefix: str = "",
3201    ) -> str:
3202        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3203
3204        if not expressions:
3205            return ""
3206
3207        if flat:
3208            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3209
3210        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3211
3212        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3213        if self.pretty:
3214            if self.leading_comma:
3215                pad = " " * len(sep)
3216            else:
3217                stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3218
3219        result_sqls = []
3220        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3221            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3222            if not sql:
3223                continue
3224
3225            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3226
3227            if self.pretty:
3228                if self.leading_comma:
3229                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3230                else:
3231                    result_sqls.append(
3232                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3233                    )
3234            else:
3235                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3236
3237        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
3238        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
3239
3240    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3241        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3242        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3243        if flat:
3244            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3245        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3246
3247    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3248        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3249        if not property_name:
3250            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3251        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3252
3253    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3254        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3255
3256    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3257        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3258
3259    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3260        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3261        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3262        expressions = (
3263            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3264        )
3265        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3266
3267    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3268        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3269        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3270        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3271
3272    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3273        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3274
3275    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3276        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3277        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3278        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3279        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3280
3281        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3282        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3283            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
3284            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
3285                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
3286        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3287            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3288                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3289            else:
3290                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3291        else:
3292            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3293        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3294
3295    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3296        table = expression.this
3297        table_alias = ""
3298
3299        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3300        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3301            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3302            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3303
3304        this = self.sql(table)
3305        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3306        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3307        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3308
3309        return self.prepend_ctes(
3310            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3311        )
3312
3313    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3314        if expression.args.get("format"):
3315            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3316
3317        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
3318
3319    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3320        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3321            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3322            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "double"))
3323
3324        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3325        if not fmt:
3326            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3327            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "double"))
3328
3329        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3330
3331    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3332        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3333        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3334        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3335        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3336        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3337
3338    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3339        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3340        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3341        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3342        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3343
3344    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3345        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3346
3347    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3348        return ""
3349
3350    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3351        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3352        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3353        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3354        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3355        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3356
3357    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3358        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3359        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3360
3361        if having:
3362            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3363
3364        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3365
3366    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3367        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3368        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3369        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3370        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3371        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3372        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3373        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3374        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3375        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3376        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3377        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3378        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3379        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3380
3381    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3382        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3383        if key_block_size:
3384            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3385
3386        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3387        if using:
3388            return f"USING {using}"
3389
3390        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3391        if parser:
3392            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3393
3394        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3395        if comment:
3396            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3397
3398        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3399        if visible is not None:
3400            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3401
3402        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3403        if engine_attr:
3404            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3405
3406        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3407        if secondary_engine_attr:
3408            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3409
3410        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3411        return ""
3412
3413    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3414        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3415        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3416
3417    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3418        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3419        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3420        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3421        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3422        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3423        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3424        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3425        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3426        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3427        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3428        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3429
3430    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3431        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3432            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3433
3434        case = exp.Case().when(
3435            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3436            expression.args["true"],
3437            copy=False,
3438        )
3439        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3440        if else_cond:
3441            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3442
3443        return self.sql(case)
3444
3445    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3446        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3447        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3448        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3449        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3450        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3451        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3452
3453    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3454        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3455
3456    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3457        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3458
3459    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3460        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3461        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3462        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3463        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3464        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3465        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3466
3467    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3468        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3469        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3470        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3471
3472    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3473        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3474        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3475        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3476
3477    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3478        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3479
3480    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3481        arg = expression.this
3482        if not arg.type:
3483            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3484
3485            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3486
3487        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3488            return self.sql(arg)
3489
3490        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3491        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3492
3493    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3494        this = expression.this
3495        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3496            return self.sql(this)
3497
3498        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "time"))
3499
3500    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3501        this = expression.this
3502        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3503            return self.sql(this)
3504
3505        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "timestamp"))
3506
3507    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3508        this = expression.this
3509        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3510
3511        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3512            return self.sql(
3513                exp.cast(exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]), "date")
3514            )
3515
3516        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3517            return self.sql(this)
3518
3519        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "date"))
3520
3521    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3522        return self.sql(
3523            exp.func(
3524                "DATEDIFF",
3525                expression.this,
3526                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), "date"),
3527                "day",
3528            )
3529        )
3530
3531    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3532        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3533            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3534
3535        unit = expression.text("unit")
3536        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3537            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3538
3539        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3540
3541    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3542        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3543
3544        return self.func(
3545            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3546        )
3547
3548    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3549        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3550            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3551            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3552            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3553            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3554
3555        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3556
3557        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3558        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3559            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3560
3561        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3562
3563    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3564        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3565        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3566
3567    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3568        expression.set(
3569            "expressions",
3570            [
3571                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3572                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3573                else e
3574                for e in expression.expressions
3575            ],
3576        )
3577
3578        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3579
3580    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3581        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3582        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3583
3584        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3585
3586    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3587        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3588        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3589
3590        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3591
3592        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3593        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3594
3595        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3596        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3597
3598        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3599        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3600
3601        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3602        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3603
3604        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3605
3606    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3607    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3608    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3609        to = expression.this
3610        value = expression.expression
3611        style = expression.args.get("style")
3612        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3613        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3614
3615        if not to or not value:
3616            return ""
3617
3618        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3619        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3620            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3621
3622        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3623        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3624
3625        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3626        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3627            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3628
3629            style_value = style.name
3630            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3631            if not converted_style:
3632                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3633
3634            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3635
3636            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3637                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3638            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3639                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3640            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3641                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3642            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3643                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3644
3645        if not transformed:
3646            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3647
3648        return self.sql(transformed)
3649
3650    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3651        this = expression.this
3652        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3653            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3654            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3655
3656        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3657            return f".{this}"
3658
3659        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3660        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3661
3662    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3663        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3664        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3665
3666    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3667        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3668            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3669
3670            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3671
3672        return expression
3673
3674    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3675        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3676            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3677            mods = sorted(
3678                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3679                key=lambda x: 0
3680                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3681                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3682            )
3683
3684            if mods:
3685                mod = mods[0]
3686                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3687                this.meta["inline"] = True
3688                mod.this.replace(this)
3689                return self.sql(expression.this)
3690
3691            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3692
3693            if agg_func:
3694                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3695
3696        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
class Generator:
  37class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  38    """
  39    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  40
  41    Args:
  42        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  43            Default: False.
  44        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  45            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  46            True or 'always': Always quote.
  47            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  48        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  49            Default: False.
  50        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  51            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  52            Default: 2.
  53        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  54            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  55            Default: 2.
  56        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  57            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  58            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  59            False: Disables function name normalization.
  60        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  61            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  62        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  63            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  64            Default: 3
  65        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  66            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  67            Default: False
  68        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  69            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  70            line length.
  71            Default: 80
  72        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  73            Default: True
  74    """
  75
  76    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  77        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  78        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  81        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  82        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  83        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  84        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  85        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  86        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  87        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  90        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  94        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  95        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
  96        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
  97        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
  98        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
  99        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 100        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 101        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 102        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 103        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 104            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 105        ),
 106        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 107            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 108        ),
 109        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 110        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 111        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 112        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 113        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 114        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 115        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 116        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 117        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 118        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 119        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 120        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 124        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 126        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 128        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 129        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 130        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 131        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 132        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 133        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 134        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 135        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 136        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 137        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
 138        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 139        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 140        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 141        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 142        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 143        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 144        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 145        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 146        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 147        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 149    }
 150
 151    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 152    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 153    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 154
 155    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 156    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 157    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 158
 159    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 160    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 161
 162    # Always do union distinct or union all
 163    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 164
 165    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 166    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 167
 168    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 169    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 170
 171    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 172    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 173
 174    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 175    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 176
 177    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 178    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 179
 180    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 181    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 182
 183    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 184    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 185
 186    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 187    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 188
 189    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 190    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 191
 192    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 193    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 194
 195    # Whether join hints should be generated
 196    JOIN_HINTS = True
 197
 198    # Whether table hints should be generated
 199    TABLE_HINTS = True
 200
 201    # Whether query hints should be generated
 202    QUERY_HINTS = True
 203
 204    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 205    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 206
 207    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 208    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 209
 210    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 211    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 212
 213    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 214    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 215
 216    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 217    RETURNING_END = True
 218
 219    # Whether to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 220    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 221
 222    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 223    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 224
 225    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 226    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 227
 228    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 229    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 230
 231    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 232    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 233
 234    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 235    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 236    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 237    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 238
 239    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 240    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 241
 242    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 243    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 244
 245    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 246    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 247
 248    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 249    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 250
 251    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 252    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 253
 254    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 255    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 256
 257    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 258    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 259
 260    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 261    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 262
 263    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 264    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 265
 266    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 267    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 268
 269    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 270    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 271
 272    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 273    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 274
 275    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 276    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 277
 278    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 279    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 280
 281    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 282    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 283
 284    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 285    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 286
 287    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 288    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 289
 290    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 291    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 292
 293    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 294    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 295
 296    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 297    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 298
 299    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 300    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 301
 302    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 303    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 304
 305    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 306    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 307
 308    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 309    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 310
 311    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 312    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 313
 314    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 315    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 316    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 317
 318    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 319    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 320
 321    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 322    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 323
 324    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 325    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 326
 327    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 328    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 329
 330    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 331    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 332
 333    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 334    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 335
 336    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 337        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 338        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 339        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 340        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 341        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 342        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 343        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 344        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 345        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 346    }
 347
 348    STAR_MAPPING = {
 349        "except": "EXCEPT",
 350        "replace": "REPLACE",
 351    }
 352
 353    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 354        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 355        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 356        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 357        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 358        "DAYS": "DAY",
 359        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 360        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 361        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 362        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 363    }
 364
 365    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 366        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 367        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 368        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 369        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 370        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 371            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 372            if e.args.get("windows")
 373            else ""
 374        ),
 375    }
 376
 377    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 378
 379    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 380
 381    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 382    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 383
 384    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 385        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 386        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 387        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 388        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 389        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 390        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 391        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 392        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 393        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 394        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 395        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 396        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 397        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 398        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 399        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 400        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 401        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 402        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 403        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 404        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 405        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 406        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 407        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 408        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 409        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 410        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 411        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 412        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 413        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 414        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 415        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 416        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 417        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 418        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 419        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 420        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 421        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 422        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 423        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 424        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 425        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 426        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 427        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 428        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 429        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 430        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 431        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 432        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 433        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 434        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 435        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 439        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 443        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 445        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 446        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 448        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 449        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 451        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 452        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 453        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 456        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 457        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 458        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 459        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 460        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461    }
 462
 463    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 464    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 465
 466    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 467    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 468        exp.Create,
 469        exp.Delete,
 470        exp.Drop,
 471        exp.From,
 472        exp.Insert,
 473        exp.Join,
 474        exp.Select,
 475        exp.Union,
 476        exp.Update,
 477        exp.Where,
 478        exp.With,
 479    )
 480
 481    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 482    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 483        exp.Binary,
 484        exp.Union,
 485    )
 486
 487    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 488    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 489        exp.Column,
 490        exp.Literal,
 491        exp.Neg,
 492        exp.Paren,
 493    )
 494
 495    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 496        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 497        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 498        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 499        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 500    }
 501
 502    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 503    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 504
 505    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 506
 507    __slots__ = (
 508        "pretty",
 509        "identify",
 510        "normalize",
 511        "pad",
 512        "_indent",
 513        "normalize_functions",
 514        "unsupported_level",
 515        "max_unsupported",
 516        "leading_comma",
 517        "max_text_width",
 518        "comments",
 519        "dialect",
 520        "unsupported_messages",
 521        "_escaped_quote_end",
 522        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 523    )
 524
 525    def __init__(
 526        self,
 527        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 528        identify: str | bool = False,
 529        normalize: bool = False,
 530        pad: int = 2,
 531        indent: int = 2,
 532        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 533        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 534        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 535        leading_comma: bool = False,
 536        max_text_width: int = 80,
 537        comments: bool = True,
 538        dialect: DialectType = None,
 539    ):
 540        import sqlglot
 541        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 542
 543        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 544        self.identify = identify
 545        self.normalize = normalize
 546        self.pad = pad
 547        self._indent = indent
 548        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 549        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 550        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 551        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 552        self.comments = comments
 553        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 554
 555        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 556        self.normalize_functions = (
 557            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 558        )
 559
 560        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 561        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 562            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 563        )
 564        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 565            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 566        )
 567
 568    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 569        """
 570        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 571
 572        Args:
 573            expression: The syntax tree.
 574            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 575                it is safer to copy.
 576
 577        Returns:
 578            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 579        """
 580        if copy:
 581            expression = expression.copy()
 582
 583        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 584
 585        self.unsupported_messages = []
 586        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 587
 588        if self.pretty:
 589            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 590
 591        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 592            return sql
 593
 594        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 595            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 596                logger.warning(msg)
 597        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 598            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 599
 600        return sql
 601
 602    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 603        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 604        if (
 605            not expression.parent
 606            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 607            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 608        ):
 609            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 610
 611            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 612
 613        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 614            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 615
 616            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 617
 618        return expression
 619
 620    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 621        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 622            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 623        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 624
 625    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 626        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 627
 628    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 629        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 630
 631    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 632        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 633        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 634        return comment
 635
 636    def maybe_comment(
 637        self,
 638        sql: str,
 639        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 640        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 641    ) -> str:
 642        comments = (
 643            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 644            if self.comments
 645            else None
 646        )
 647
 648        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 649            return sql
 650
 651        comments_sql = " ".join(
 652            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 653        )
 654
 655        if not comments_sql:
 656            return sql
 657
 658        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 659            return (
 660                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 661                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 662                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 663            )
 664
 665        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 666
 667    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 668        this_sql = self.indent(
 669            (
 670                self.sql(expression)
 671                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 672                else self.sql(expression, "this")
 673            ),
 674            level=1,
 675            pad=0,
 676        )
 677        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 678
 679    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 680        original = self.identify
 681        self.identify = False
 682        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 683        self.identify = original
 684        return result
 685
 686    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 687        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 688            return name.upper()
 689        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 690            return name.lower()
 691        return name
 692
 693    def indent(
 694        self,
 695        sql: str,
 696        level: int = 0,
 697        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 698        skip_first: bool = False,
 699        skip_last: bool = False,
 700    ) -> str:
 701        if not self.pretty:
 702            return sql
 703
 704        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 705        lines = sql.split("\n")
 706
 707        return "\n".join(
 708            (
 709                line
 710                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 711                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 712            )
 713            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 714        )
 715
 716    def sql(
 717        self,
 718        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 719        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 720        comment: bool = True,
 721    ) -> str:
 722        if not expression:
 723            return ""
 724
 725        if isinstance(expression, str):
 726            return expression
 727
 728        if key:
 729            value = expression.args.get(key)
 730            if value:
 731                return self.sql(value)
 732            return ""
 733
 734        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 735
 736        if callable(transform):
 737            sql = transform(self, expression)
 738        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 739            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 740
 741            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 742                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 743            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 744                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 745            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 746                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 747            else:
 748                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 749        else:
 750            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 751
 752        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 753
 754    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 755        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 756        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 757        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 758
 759    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 760        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 761        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 762        options = expression.args.get("options")
 763        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 764        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 765        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 766        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 767        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 768
 769    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 770        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 771            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 772        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 773        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 774
 775    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 776        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 777
 778        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 779            join_mark = ""
 780            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 781
 782        column = ".".join(
 783            self.sql(part)
 784            for part in (
 785                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 786                expression.args.get("db"),
 787                expression.args.get("table"),
 788                expression.args.get("this"),
 789            )
 790            if part
 791        )
 792
 793        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 794
 795    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 796        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 797        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 798        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 799        return f"{position}{this}"
 800
 801    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 802        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 803        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 804        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 805        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 806        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 807        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 808        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 809        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 810
 811        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 812            kind = ""
 813
 814        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 815
 816    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 817        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 818        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 819        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 820
 821    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 822        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 823        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 824            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 825        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 826            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 827        else:
 828            persisted = ""
 829        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 830
 831    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 832        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 833
 834    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 835        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 836            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 837        else:
 838            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 839
 840        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 841
 842    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 843        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 844    ) -> str:
 845        this = ""
 846        if expression.this is not None:
 847            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 848            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 849
 850        start = expression.args.get("start")
 851        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 852        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 853        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 854        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 855        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 856        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 857        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 858        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 859        cycle_sql = ""
 860
 861        if cycle is not None:
 862            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 863            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 864
 865        sequence_opts = ""
 866        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 867            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 868            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 869
 870        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 871        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 872
 873        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 874
 875    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 876        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 877    ) -> str:
 878        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 879        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 880        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 881
 882    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 883        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 884    ) -> str:
 885        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 886
 887    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 888        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 889
 890    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 891        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 892
 893    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 894        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 895        if desc is not None:
 896            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 897        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 898
 899    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 900        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 901        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 902        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 903        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 904        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 905        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 906        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 907
 908    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 909        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 910
 911    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 912        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 913        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 914        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 915
 916        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 917
 918        properties_sql = ""
 919        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 920            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 921        ):
 922            properties_sql = self.sql(
 923                exp.Properties(
 924                    expressions=[
 925                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 926                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 927                    ]
 928                )
 929            )
 930
 931        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 932        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 933
 934        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 935        if expression_sql:
 936            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 937
 938            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 939                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 940                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 941                        exp.Properties(
 942                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 943                        ),
 944                        wrapped=False,
 945                    )
 946                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 947                else:
 948                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 949
 950        postindex_props_sql = ""
 951        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 952            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 953                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 954                wrapped=False,
 955                prefix=" ",
 956            )
 957
 958        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 959        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 960        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 961
 962        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 963        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 964
 965        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 966        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 967            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 968                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 969                sep=" ",
 970                prefix=" ",
 971                wrapped=False,
 972            )
 973
 974        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 975
 976        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 977        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 978            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 979                exp.Properties(
 980                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 981                ),
 982                sep=" ",
 983                prefix=" ",
 984                wrapped=False,
 985            )
 986
 987        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 988        no_schema_binding = (
 989            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 990        )
 991
 992        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 993        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 994
 995        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 996        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 997
 998    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
 999        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1000        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1001        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1002        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1003        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1004        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1005        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1006        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1007        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1008        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1009
1010        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1011        if cache is None:
1012            cache_str = ""
1013        elif cache is True:
1014            cache_str = " CACHE"
1015        else:
1016            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1017
1018        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1019        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1020
1021        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1022
1023    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1024        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1025        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1026        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1027        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1028
1029    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1030        style = expression.args.get("style")
1031        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1032        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1033
1034    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1035        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1036        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1037
1038    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1039        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1040        if with_:
1041            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1042        return sql
1043
1044    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1045        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1046        recursive = (
1047            "RECURSIVE "
1048            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1049            else ""
1050        )
1051
1052        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1053
1054    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1055        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1056
1057        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1058        if materialized is False:
1059            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1060        elif materialized:
1061            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1062
1063        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1064
1065    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1066        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1067        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1068        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1069
1070        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1071            columns = ""
1072            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1073
1074        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1075            alias = "_t"
1076
1077        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1078
1079    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1080        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1081        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1082            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1083        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1084
1085    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1086        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1087        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1088            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1089        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1090
1091    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1092        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1093        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1094            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1095        return this
1096
1097    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1098        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1099        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1100
1101        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1102            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1103            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1104
1105        if escape:
1106            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1107        else:
1108            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1109
1110        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1111        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1112
1113    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1114        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1115        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1116
1117    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1118        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1119        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1120        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1121        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1122
1123    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1124        type_value = expression.this
1125
1126        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1127            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1128        else:
1129            type_sql = (
1130                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1131                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1132                else type_value
1133            )
1134
1135        nested = ""
1136        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1137        values = ""
1138
1139        if interior:
1140            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1141                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1142                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1143                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1144                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1145                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1146            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1147                nested = f" {interior}"
1148            else:
1149                nested = f"({interior})"
1150
1151        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1152        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1153            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1154            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1155        ):
1156            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1157
1158        return type_sql
1159
1160    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1161        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1162        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1163        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1164        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1165
1166    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1167        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1168        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1169        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1170        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1171        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1172        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1173        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1174        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1175        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1176        if self.RETURNING_END:
1177            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1178        else:
1179            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1180        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1181
1182    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1183        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1184        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1185        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1186        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1187        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1188        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1189        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1190        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1191        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1192        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1193        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1194
1195    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1196        return self.set_operations(expression)
1197
1198    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1199        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1200
1201    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1202        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1203        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1204        count = expression.args.get("count")
1205        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1206        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1207            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1208        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1209        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1210
1211    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1212        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1213            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1214            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1215            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1216
1217        agg = expression.this
1218        agg_arg = agg.this
1219        cond = expression.expression.this
1220        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1221        return self.sql(agg)
1222
1223    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1224        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1225            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1226            return ""
1227
1228        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1229
1230    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1231        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1232        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1233        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1234        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1235        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1236        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1237        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1238        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1239        if include:
1240            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1241        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1242        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1243        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1244        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1245
1246        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
1247
1248    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1249        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1250        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1251        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1252        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1253        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1254        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1255        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1256
1257        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1258
1259        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1260        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1261
1262    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1263        text = expression.name
1264        lower = text.lower()
1265        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1266        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1267        if (
1268            expression.quoted
1269            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1270            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1271            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1272        ):
1273            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1274        return text
1275
1276    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1277        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1278        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1279        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1280        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1281        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1282
1283    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1284        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1285        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1286
1287    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1288        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1289
1290    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1291        root_properties = []
1292        with_properties = []
1293
1294        for p in expression.expressions:
1295            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1296            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1297                with_properties.append(p)
1298            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1299                root_properties.append(p)
1300
1301        return self.root_properties(
1302            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1303        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1304
1305    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1306        if properties.expressions:
1307            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1308        return ""
1309
1310    def properties(
1311        self,
1312        properties: exp.Properties,
1313        prefix: str = "",
1314        sep: str = ", ",
1315        suffix: str = "",
1316        wrapped: bool = True,
1317    ) -> str:
1318        if properties.expressions:
1319            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1320            if expressions:
1321                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1322                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1323        return ""
1324
1325    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1326        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1327
1328    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1329        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1330        for p in properties.expressions:
1331            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1332            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1333                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1334            else:
1335                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1336
1337        return properties_locs
1338
1339    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1340        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1341            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1342        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1343
1344    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1345        property_cls = expression.__class__
1346        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1347            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1348
1349        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1350        if not property_name:
1351            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1352
1353        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1354
1355    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1356        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1357            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1358            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1359
1360            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1361            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1362                like = f"({like})"
1363
1364            return like
1365
1366        if expression.expressions:
1367            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1368
1369        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1370        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1371
1372    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1373        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1374        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1375        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1376
1377    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1378        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1379        local = expression.args.get("local")
1380        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1381        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1382        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1383        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1384        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1385
1386    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1387        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1388        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1389        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1390
1391    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1392        if expression.args.get("default"):
1393            property = "DEFAULT"
1394        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1395            property = "ON"
1396        else:
1397            property = "OFF"
1398        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1399
1400    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1401        if expression.args.get("no"):
1402            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1403        if expression.args.get("default"):
1404            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1405
1406        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1407        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1408
1409    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1410        default = expression.args.get("default")
1411        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1412        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1413        if default or minimum or maximum:
1414            if default:
1415                prop = "DEFAULT"
1416            elif minimum:
1417                prop = "MINIMUM"
1418            else:
1419                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1420            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1421        units = expression.args.get("units")
1422        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1423        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1424
1425    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1426        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1427        always = expression.args.get("always")
1428        default = expression.args.get("default")
1429        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1430        never = expression.args.get("never")
1431
1432        if autotemp is not None:
1433            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1434        elif always:
1435            prop = "ALWAYS"
1436        elif default:
1437            prop = "DEFAULT"
1438        elif manual:
1439            prop = "MANUAL"
1440        elif never:
1441            prop = "NEVER"
1442        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1443
1444    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1445        no = expression.args.get("no")
1446        no = " NO" if no else ""
1447        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1448        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1449        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1450        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1451        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1452
1453    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1454        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1455            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1456        if expression.this:
1457            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1458            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1459            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1460
1461        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1462        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1463        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1464
1465    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1466        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1467
1468        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1469        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1470            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1471        else:
1472            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1473
1474        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1475
1476    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1477        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1478        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1479        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1480        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1481        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1482        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1483        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1484
1485    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1486        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1487        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1488        statistics_sql = ""
1489        if statistics is not None:
1490            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1491        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1492
1493    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1494        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1495
1496        if expression.this:
1497            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1498            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1499
1500            if expression.expression:
1501                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1502                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1503
1504            sql = f"{sql})"
1505
1506        return f"{sql})"
1507
1508    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1509        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1510        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1511
1512        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1513            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1514        else:
1515            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1516
1517        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1518        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1519        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1520        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1521        if is_function:
1522            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1523        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1524
1525        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1526        partition_sql = (
1527            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1528        )
1529        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1530        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1531        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1532        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1533        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1534        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1535        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1536
1537        if self.RETURNING_END:
1538            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1539        else:
1540            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1541
1542        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1543        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1544
1545    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1546        return self.set_operations(expression)
1547
1548    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1549        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1550
1551    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1552        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1553
1554    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1555        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1556        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1557        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1558        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1559        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1560
1561    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1562        return expression.name
1563
1564    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1565        return expression.name
1566
1567    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1568        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1569
1570        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1571        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1572
1573        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1574        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1575        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1576
1577        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1578        if expressions:
1579            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1580            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1581
1582        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1583
1584    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1585        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1586
1587    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1588        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1589        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1590        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1591        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1592        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1593        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1594        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1595        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1596        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1597        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1598        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1599        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1600        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1601
1602    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1603        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1604
1605    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1606        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1607        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1608        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1609        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1610
1611    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1612        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1613        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1614        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1615        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1616
1617    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1618        return ".".join(
1619            self.sql(part)
1620            for part in (
1621                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1622                expression.args.get("db"),
1623                expression.args.get("this"),
1624            )
1625            if part is not None
1626        )
1627
1628    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1629        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1630        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1631        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1632        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1633        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1634        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1635        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1636        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1637        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1638        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1639        joins = self.indent(
1640            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1641        )
1642        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1643
1644        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1645        if file_format:
1646            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1647            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1648            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1649
1650        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1651        if ordinality:
1652            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1653            alias = ""
1654
1655        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1656        if when:
1657            table = f"{table} {when}"
1658
1659        return f"{only}{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1660
1661    def tablesample_sql(
1662        self,
1663        expression: exp.TableSample,
1664        sep: str = " AS ",
1665        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1666    ) -> str:
1667        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1668            table = expression.this.copy()
1669            table.set("alias", None)
1670            this = self.sql(table)
1671            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1672        else:
1673            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1674            alias = ""
1675
1676        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1677        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1678        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1679        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1680        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1681        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1682        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1683        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1684        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1685
1686        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1687        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1688            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1689
1690        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1691        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1692            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1693
1694        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1695        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1696            expr = f"({expr})"
1697
1698        return (
1699            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1700        )
1701
1702    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1703        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1704
1705        if expression.this:
1706            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1707            if not expressions:
1708                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1709
1710            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1711            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1712            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1713            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1714            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1715
1716        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1717        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1718        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1719        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1720        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1721        if include_nulls is not None:
1722            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1723        else:
1724            nulls = ""
1725        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1726
1727    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1728        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1729        kind = expression.text("kind")
1730        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1731        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1732
1733    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1734        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1735
1736    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1737        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1738        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1739        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1740        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1741        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1742        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1743        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1744        if self.RETURNING_END:
1745            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1746        else:
1747            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1748        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1749        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1750
1751    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1752        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1753
1754        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1755        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1756            args = self.expressions(expression)
1757            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1758            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1759            values = (
1760                f"({values})"
1761                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1762                else values
1763            )
1764            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1765
1766        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1767        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1768        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1769
1770        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1771
1772        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1773            row = tup.expressions
1774
1775            if i == 0 and column_names:
1776                row = [
1777                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1778                ]
1779
1780            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1781
1782        if self.pretty:
1783            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1784            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1785            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1786            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1787            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1788
1789        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1790        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1791        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1792
1793    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1794        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1795
1796    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1797        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1798        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1799        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1800
1801    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1802        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1803
1804    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1805        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1806
1807        if expression.args.get("all"):
1808            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1809
1810        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1811        grouping_sets = (
1812            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1813        )
1814
1815        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1816        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1817            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1818        else:
1819            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1820            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1821
1822        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1823        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1824            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1825        else:
1826            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1827            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1828
1829        groupings = csv(
1830            grouping_sets,
1831            cube_sql,
1832            rollup_sql,
1833            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1834            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1835        )
1836
1837        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1838            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1839
1840        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1841
1842    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1843        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1844        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1845
1846    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1847        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1848        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1849        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1850        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1851        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1852        return start + connect
1853
1854    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1855        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1856
1857    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1858        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1859            side = None
1860        else:
1861            side = expression.side
1862
1863        op_sql = " ".join(
1864            op
1865            for op in (
1866                expression.method,
1867                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1868                side,
1869                expression.kind,
1870                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1871            )
1872            if op
1873        )
1874        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1875        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1876        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1877        using = expression.args.get("using")
1878
1879        if not on_sql and using:
1880            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1881
1882        this = expression.this
1883        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1884
1885        if on_sql:
1886            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1887            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1888            if using:
1889                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1890            else:
1891                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1892        elif not op_sql:
1893            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1894                return f" {this_sql}"
1895
1896            return f", {this_sql}"
1897
1898        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1899        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
1900
1901    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1902        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1903        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1904        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1905
1906    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1907        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1908
1909        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1910        if cross_apply is True:
1911            op = "INNER JOIN "
1912        elif cross_apply is False:
1913            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1914        else:
1915            op = ""
1916
1917        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1918
1919    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1920        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1921
1922        if expression.args.get("view"):
1923            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1924            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1925            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1926            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1927            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1928            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1929
1930        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1931        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1932        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
1933
1934    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1935        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1936
1937        args = [
1938            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1939            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1940            if e
1941        ]
1942
1943        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1944        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1945        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1946        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1947
1948        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
1949
1950    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1951        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1952        value = expression.expression
1953        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1954        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1955        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1956        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
1957
1958    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1959        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1960        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1961        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1962        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1963        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1964        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1965        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1966        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1967
1968    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1969        expressions = (
1970            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1971        )
1972        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1973        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1974
1975    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1976        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1977
1978    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1979        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1980            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1981            return ""
1982
1983        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1984        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1985        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1986        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1987
1988        if wait is not None:
1989            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1990                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1991            else:
1992                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1993
1994        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1995
1996    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1997        text = expression.this or ""
1998        if expression.is_string:
1999            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2000        return text
2001
2002    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2003        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2004            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2005            text = "".join(
2006                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2007            )
2008
2009        if self.pretty:
2010            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
2011
2012        return text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
2013
2014    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2015        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2016        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2017        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2018        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2019        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2020        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2021        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2022        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2023        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2024        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2025        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2026
2027    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2028        return "NULL"
2029
2030    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2031        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2032
2033    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2034        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2035        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2036        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2037        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2038        interpolated_values = [
2039            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2040            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2041        ]
2042        interpolate = (
2043            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2044        )
2045        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2046
2047    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2048        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2049        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2050        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2051        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2052        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2053        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2054        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2055
2056    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2057        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2058
2059    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2060        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2061
2062    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2063        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2064
2065    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2066        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2067        asc = not desc
2068
2069        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2070        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2071        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2072        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2073        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2074
2075        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2076
2077        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2078        nulls_sort_change = ""
2079        if nulls_first and (
2080            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2081        ):
2082            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2083        elif (
2084            nulls_last
2085            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2086            and not nulls_are_last
2087        ):
2088            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2089
2090        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2091        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2092            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2093            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2094                self.unsupported(
2095                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2096                )
2097                nulls_sort_change = ""
2098            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2099                if expression.this.is_int:
2100                    self.unsupported(
2101                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2102                    )
2103                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2104                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2105                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2106                nulls_sort_change = ""
2107
2108        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2109        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2110
2111        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2112
2113    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2114        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2115        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2116        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2117        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2118        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2119        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2120        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2121        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2122        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2123        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2124        definition_sqls = [
2125            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2126            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2127        ]
2128        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2129        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2130        body = "".join(
2131            (
2132                partition,
2133                order,
2134                measures,
2135                rows,
2136                after,
2137                pattern,
2138                define,
2139            )
2140        )
2141        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2142        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2143        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2144
2145    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2146        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2147
2148        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2149            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2150        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2151            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2152
2153        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2154        if options:
2155            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2156
2157        return csv(
2158            *sqls,
2159            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2160            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2161            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2162            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2163            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2164            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2165            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2166            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2167            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2168            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2169            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2170            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2171            options,
2172            sep="",
2173        )
2174
2175    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2176        return ""
2177
2178    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2179        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2180    ) -> t.List[str]:
2181        return [
2182            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2183            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2184        ]
2185
2186    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2187        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2188        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2189        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2190
2191    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2192        into = expression.args.get("into")
2193        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2194            into.pop()
2195
2196        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2197        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2198        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2199        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2200
2201        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2202        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2203            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2204            limit.pop()
2205        else:
2206            top = ""
2207
2208        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2209
2210        if kind:
2211            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2212                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2213            else:
2214                if kind == "STRUCT":
2215                    expressions = self.expressions(
2216                        sqls=[
2217                            self.sql(
2218                                exp.Struct(
2219                                    expressions=[
2220                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2221                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2222                                        else e
2223                                        for e in expression.expressions
2224                                    ]
2225                                )
2226                            )
2227                        ]
2228                    )
2229                kind = ""
2230
2231        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2232        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2233        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2234        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2235        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2236            expression,
2237            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2238            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2239            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2240        )
2241
2242        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2243
2244        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2245            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2246                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2247            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2248                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2249            else:
2250                table_kind = ""
2251            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2252
2253        return sql
2254
2255    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2256        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2257        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2258        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2259
2260    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2261        if expression.expressions:
2262            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2263        return ""
2264
2265    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2266        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2267        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2268        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2269        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2270        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2271
2272    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2273        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2274        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2275
2276    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2277        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2278        kind = expression.text("kind")
2279        if kind:
2280            kind = f"{kind}."
2281        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2282
2283    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2284        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2285
2286    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2287        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2288        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2289
2290        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2291        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2292
2293        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2294        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2295
2296    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2297        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2298        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2299
2300    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2301        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2302        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2303
2304        while stack:
2305            node = stack.pop()
2306
2307            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2308                stack.append(node.expression)
2309                stack.append(
2310                    self.maybe_comment(
2311                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2312                        expression=node.this,
2313                        comments=node.comments,
2314                    )
2315                )
2316                stack.append(node.this)
2317            else:
2318                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2319
2320        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2321        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2322        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2323
2324    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2325        return self.set_operations(expression)
2326
2327    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2328        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2329        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2330        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2331        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2332
2333    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2334        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2335
2336        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2337        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2338
2339        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2340            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2341                alias.append("columns", offset)
2342
2343        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2344            columns = alias.columns
2345            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2346        else:
2347            alias = self.sql(alias)
2348
2349        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2350        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2351            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2352        else:
2353            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2354                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2355            elif offset:
2356                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2357            else:
2358                suffix = alias
2359
2360        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2361
2362    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2363        return ""
2364
2365    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2366        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2367        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2368
2369    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2370        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2371        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2372        order = expression.args.get("order")
2373        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2374        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2375        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2376        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2377
2378        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2379
2380        first = expression.args.get("first")
2381        if first is None:
2382            first = ""
2383        else:
2384            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2385
2386        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2387            return f"{this} {alias}"
2388
2389        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2390        return f"{this} ({args})"
2391
2392    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2393        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2394        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2395
2396    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2397        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2398        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2399        end = (
2400            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2401            or "CURRENT ROW"
2402        )
2403        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2404
2405    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2406        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2407        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2408        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2409
2410    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2411        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2412        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2413        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2414        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2415
2416    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2417        expressions = apply_index_offset(
2418            expression.this,
2419            expression.expressions,
2420            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2421        )
2422        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2423        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2424
2425    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2426        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2427
2428    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2429        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2430        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2431            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2432                this = self.wrap(this)
2433            return f"ANY{this}"
2434        return f"ANY {this}"
2435
2436    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2437        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2438
2439    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2440        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2441        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2442
2443        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2444            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2445            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2446
2447        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2448
2449        if default:
2450            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2451
2452        statements.append("END")
2453
2454        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2455            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2456
2457        return " ".join(statements)
2458
2459    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2460        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2461        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2462        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2463
2464    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2465        order = expression.args.get("order")
2466        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2467        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2468
2469    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2470        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2471        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2472        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2473
2474    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2475        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2476
2477        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2478            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2479        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2480            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2481        else:
2482            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2483
2484    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2485        args = expression.expressions
2486        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2487            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2488
2489        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2490            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
2491
2492        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2493            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2494
2495        return args
2496
2497    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2498        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2499
2500        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2501        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2502            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2503
2504        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2505
2506    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2507        return self.func(
2508            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2509        )
2510
2511    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2512        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2513        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2514
2515    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2516        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2517        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2518        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2519        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2520        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2521        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2522        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2523        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2524
2525    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2526        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2527        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2528        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2529        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2530
2531    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2532        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2533
2534    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2535        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2536        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2537        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2538
2539    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2540        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2541
2542    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2543        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2544        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2545
2546    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2547        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2548            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2549            if not callable(transform):
2550                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2551                return ""
2552
2553            return transform(self, expression)
2554
2555        if isinstance(expression, int):
2556            return str(expression)
2557
2558        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2559            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2560            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2561        else:
2562            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2563            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2564
2565        return escaped
2566
2567    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2568        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2569
2570    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2571        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2572        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2573
2574        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2575        if unique_keys is not None:
2576            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2577        else:
2578            unique_keys = ""
2579
2580        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2581        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2582        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2583        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2584
2585        return self.func(
2586            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2587            *expression.expressions,
2588            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2589        )
2590
2591    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2592        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2593
2594    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2595        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2596        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2597        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2598        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2599        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2600        return self.func(
2601            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2602        )
2603
2604    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2605        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2606        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2607        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2608        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2609        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2610        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2611        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2612        return self.func(
2613            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2614            this,
2615            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2616        )
2617
2618    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2619        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2620        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2621        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2622
2623        if nested_schema:
2624            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2625
2626        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2627        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2628        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2629        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2630
2631    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2632        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2633
2634    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2635        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2636        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2637        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2638        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2639        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2640        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2641        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2642        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2643        return self.func(
2644            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2645        )
2646
2647    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2648        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2649        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2650        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2651        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2652        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2653        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2654
2655    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2656        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2657        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2658        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2659        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2660        with_ = (
2661            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2662            if expressions
2663            else ""
2664        )
2665        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2666
2667    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2668        query = expression.args.get("query")
2669        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2670        field = expression.args.get("field")
2671        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2672
2673        if query:
2674            in_sql = self.wrap(self.sql(query))
2675        elif unnest:
2676            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2677        elif field:
2678            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2679        else:
2680            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2681
2682        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2683
2684    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2685        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2686
2687    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2688        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2689        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2690            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2691        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2692
2693        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2694            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2695            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2696
2697        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2698        if this:
2699            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2700            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2701
2702        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2703
2704    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2705        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2706
2707    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2708        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2709        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2710        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2711        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2712        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2713        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2714
2715    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2716        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2717
2718    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2719        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2720        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2721
2722    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2723        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2724        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2725        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2726        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2727
2728    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2729        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2730
2731    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2732        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2733        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2734        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2735
2736    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2737        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2738        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2739
2740        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2741            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2742        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2743            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2744
2745        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2746
2747    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2748        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2749
2750    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2751        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2752        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2753        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2754
2755    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2756        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2757        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2758        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2759
2760    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2761        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2762        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2763        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2764
2765    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2766        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2767
2768    def and_sql(
2769        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2770    ) -> str:
2771        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2772
2773    def or_sql(
2774        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2775    ) -> str:
2776        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2777
2778    def xor_sql(
2779        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2780    ) -> str:
2781        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2782
2783    def connector_sql(
2784        self,
2785        expression: exp.Connector,
2786        op: str,
2787        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2788    ) -> str:
2789        if stack is not None:
2790            if expression.expressions:
2791                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2792            else:
2793                stack.append(expression.right)
2794                if expression.comments:
2795                    for comment in expression.comments:
2796                        op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2797                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2798            return op
2799
2800        stack = [expression]
2801        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2802        ops = set()
2803
2804        while stack:
2805            node = stack.pop()
2806            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2807                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2808            else:
2809                sql = self.sql(node)
2810                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2811                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2812                else:
2813                    sqls.append(sql)
2814
2815        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2816        return sep.join(sqls)
2817
2818    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2819        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2820
2821    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2822        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2823
2824    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2825        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2826
2827    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2828        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2829
2830    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2831        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2832
2833    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2834        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2835
2836    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2837        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2838        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2839        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2840        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2841        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2842        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2843        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2844
2845    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2846        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2847        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2848
2849    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2850        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2851
2852    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2853        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2854            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2855        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2856
2857    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2858        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2859
2860    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2861        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2862        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2863        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2864        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2865        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2866
2867    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2868        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2869        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2870        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2871        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2872        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2873        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2874        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2875        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2876        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2877
2878    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2879        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2880        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2881        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2882        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2883
2884        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2885            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2886
2887        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2888
2889    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2890        return "BEGIN"
2891
2892    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2893        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2894        if chain is not None:
2895            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2896
2897        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2898
2899    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2900        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2901        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2902        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2903
2904    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2905        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2906
2907        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2908        if dtype:
2909            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2910            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2911            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2912            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2913            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2914
2915        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2916        if default:
2917            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2918
2919        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2920        if comment:
2921            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2922
2923        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2924            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2925
2926        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2927
2928    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2929        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2930            # Remove db from tables
2931            expression = expression.transform(
2932                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2933            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
2934        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2935        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2936
2937    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
2938        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2939        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
2940        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
2941        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
2942
2943    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2944        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2945
2946        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2947            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2948        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2949            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2950        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2951            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2952        else:
2953            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2954
2955        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2956        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2957        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2958        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
2959        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
2960
2961    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2962        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2963            return self.expressions(
2964                expression,
2965                key="actions",
2966                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2967            )
2968        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
2969
2970    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2971        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2972        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2973        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2974
2975    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2976        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
2977
2978    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2979        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2980
2981        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
2982            case = exp.case()
2983            for arg in expression.expressions:
2984                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
2985            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
2986
2987        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2988
2989        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2990        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2991        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2992
2993    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2994        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
2995
2996    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2997        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
2998
2999    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3000        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3001        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3002        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3003        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3004
3005    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3006        return self.sql(
3007            exp.Cast(
3008                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3009                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3010            )
3011        )
3012
3013    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3014        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3015            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
3016        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3017
3018    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3019        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3020
3021        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3022            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3023
3024        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3025            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3026                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3027
3028        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3029            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3030                return self.sql(
3031                    exp.cast(
3032                        l / r,
3033                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3034                    )
3035                )
3036
3037        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3038
3039    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3040        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3041
3042    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3043        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3044
3045    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3046        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3047
3048    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3049        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3050
3051    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3052        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3053
3054    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3055        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3056
3057    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3058        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3059
3060    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3061        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3062
3063    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3064        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3065
3066    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3067        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3068
3069    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3070        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3071
3072    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3073        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3074            return self.sql(
3075                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3076            )
3077        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3078
3079    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3080        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3081
3082    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3083        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3084
3085    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3086        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3087
3088    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3089        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3090
3091    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3092        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3093
3094    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3095        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3096
3097    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3098        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3099
3100    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3101        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3102
3103    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3104        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3105
3106    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3107        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3108
3109    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3110        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3111
3112    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3113        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3114
3115    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3116        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3117
3118    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3119        this = expression.this
3120        expr = expression.expression
3121
3122        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3123            this, expr = expr, this
3124        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3125            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3126                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3127
3128            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3129
3130        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3131
3132    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3133        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3134        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3135        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3136        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3137        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3138
3139    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3140        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3141        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3142
3143    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3144        args = []
3145
3146        for key in expression.arg_types:
3147            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3148
3149            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3150                for value in arg_value:
3151                    args.append(value)
3152            elif arg_value is not None:
3153                args.append(arg_value)
3154
3155        if self.normalize_functions:
3156            name = expression.sql_name()
3157        else:
3158            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3159
3160        return self.func(name, *args)
3161
3162    def func(
3163        self,
3164        name: str,
3165        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3166        prefix: str = "(",
3167        suffix: str = ")",
3168    ) -> str:
3169        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3170
3171    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3172        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3173        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
3174            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3175        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3176
3177    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
3178        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
3179
3180    def format_time(
3181        self,
3182        expression: exp.Expression,
3183        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3184        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3185    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3186        return format_time(
3187            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3188            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3189            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3190        )
3191
3192    def expressions(
3193        self,
3194        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3195        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3196        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3197        flat: bool = False,
3198        indent: bool = True,
3199        skip_first: bool = False,
3200        sep: str = ", ",
3201        prefix: str = "",
3202    ) -> str:
3203        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3204
3205        if not expressions:
3206            return ""
3207
3208        if flat:
3209            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3210
3211        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3212
3213        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3214        if self.pretty:
3215            if self.leading_comma:
3216                pad = " " * len(sep)
3217            else:
3218                stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3219
3220        result_sqls = []
3221        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3222            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3223            if not sql:
3224                continue
3225
3226            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3227
3228            if self.pretty:
3229                if self.leading_comma:
3230                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3231                else:
3232                    result_sqls.append(
3233                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3234                    )
3235            else:
3236                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3237
3238        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
3239        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
3240
3241    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3242        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3243        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3244        if flat:
3245            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3246        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3247
3248    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3249        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3250        if not property_name:
3251            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3252        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3253
3254    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3255        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3256
3257    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3258        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3259
3260    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3261        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3262        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3263        expressions = (
3264            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3265        )
3266        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3267
3268    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3269        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3270        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3271        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3272
3273    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3274        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3275
3276    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3277        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3278        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3279        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3280        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3281
3282        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3283        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3284            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
3285            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
3286                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
3287        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3288            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3289                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3290            else:
3291                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3292        else:
3293            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3294        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3295
3296    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3297        table = expression.this
3298        table_alias = ""
3299
3300        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3301        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3302            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3303            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3304
3305        this = self.sql(table)
3306        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3307        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3308        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3309
3310        return self.prepend_ctes(
3311            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3312        )
3313
3314    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3315        if expression.args.get("format"):
3316            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3317
3318        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
3319
3320    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3321        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3322            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3323            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "double"))
3324
3325        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3326        if not fmt:
3327            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3328            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "double"))
3329
3330        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3331
3332    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3333        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3334        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3335        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3336        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3337        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3338
3339    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3340        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3341        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3342        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3343        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3344
3345    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3346        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3347
3348    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3349        return ""
3350
3351    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3352        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3353        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3354        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3355        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3356        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3357
3358    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3359        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3360        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3361
3362        if having:
3363            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3364
3365        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3366
3367    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3368        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3369        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3370        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3371        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3372        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3373        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3374        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3375        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3376        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3377        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3378        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3379        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3380        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3381
3382    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3383        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3384        if key_block_size:
3385            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3386
3387        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3388        if using:
3389            return f"USING {using}"
3390
3391        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3392        if parser:
3393            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3394
3395        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3396        if comment:
3397            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3398
3399        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3400        if visible is not None:
3401            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3402
3403        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3404        if engine_attr:
3405            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3406
3407        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3408        if secondary_engine_attr:
3409            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3410
3411        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3412        return ""
3413
3414    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3415        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3416        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3417
3418    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3419        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3420        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3421        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3422        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3423        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3424        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3425        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3426        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3427        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3428        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3429        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3430
3431    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3432        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3433            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3434
3435        case = exp.Case().when(
3436            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3437            expression.args["true"],
3438            copy=False,
3439        )
3440        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3441        if else_cond:
3442            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3443
3444        return self.sql(case)
3445
3446    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3447        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3448        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3449        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3450        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3451        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3452        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3453
3454    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3455        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3456
3457    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3458        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3459
3460    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3461        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3462        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3463        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3464        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3465        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3466        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3467
3468    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3469        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3470        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3471        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3472
3473    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3474        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3475        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3476        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3477
3478    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3479        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3480
3481    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3482        arg = expression.this
3483        if not arg.type:
3484            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3485
3486            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3487
3488        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3489            return self.sql(arg)
3490
3491        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3492        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3493
3494    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3495        this = expression.this
3496        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3497            return self.sql(this)
3498
3499        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "time"))
3500
3501    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3502        this = expression.this
3503        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3504            return self.sql(this)
3505
3506        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "timestamp"))
3507
3508    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3509        this = expression.this
3510        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3511
3512        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3513            return self.sql(
3514                exp.cast(exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]), "date")
3515            )
3516
3517        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3518            return self.sql(this)
3519
3520        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "date"))
3521
3522    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3523        return self.sql(
3524            exp.func(
3525                "DATEDIFF",
3526                expression.this,
3527                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), "date"),
3528                "day",
3529            )
3530        )
3531
3532    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3533        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3534            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3535
3536        unit = expression.text("unit")
3537        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3538            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3539
3540        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3541
3542    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3543        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3544
3545        return self.func(
3546            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3547        )
3548
3549    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3550        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3551            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3552            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3553            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3554            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3555
3556        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3557
3558        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3559        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3560            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3561
3562        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3563
3564    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3565        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3566        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3567
3568    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3569        expression.set(
3570            "expressions",
3571            [
3572                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3573                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3574                else e
3575                for e in expression.expressions
3576            ],
3577        )
3578
3579        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3580
3581    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3582        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3583        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3584
3585        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3586
3587    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3588        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3589        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3590
3591        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3592
3593        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3594        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3595
3596        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3597        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3598
3599        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3600        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3601
3602        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3603        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3604
3605        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3606
3607    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3608    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3609    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3610        to = expression.this
3611        value = expression.expression
3612        style = expression.args.get("style")
3613        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3614        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3615
3616        if not to or not value:
3617            return ""
3618
3619        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3620        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3621            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3622
3623        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3624        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3625
3626        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3627        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3628            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3629
3630            style_value = style.name
3631            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3632            if not converted_style:
3633                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3634
3635            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3636
3637            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3638                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3639            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3640                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3641            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3642                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3643            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3644                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3645
3646        if not transformed:
3647            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3648
3649        return self.sql(transformed)
3650
3651    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3652        this = expression.this
3653        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3654            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3655            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3656
3657        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3658            return f".{this}"
3659
3660        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3661        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3662
3663    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3664        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3665        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3666
3667    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3668        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3669            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3670
3671            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3672
3673        return expression
3674
3675    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3676        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3677            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3678            mods = sorted(
3679                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3680                key=lambda x: 0
3681                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3682                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3683            )
3684
3685            if mods:
3686                mod = mods[0]
3687                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3688                this.meta["inline"] = True
3689                mod.this.replace(this)
3690                return self.sql(expression.this)
3691
3692            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3693
3694            if agg_func:
3695                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3696
3697        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
  • indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a WHERE clause. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
525    def __init__(
526        self,
527        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
528        identify: str | bool = False,
529        normalize: bool = False,
530        pad: int = 2,
531        indent: int = 2,
532        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
533        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
534        max_unsupported: int = 3,
535        leading_comma: bool = False,
536        max_text_width: int = 80,
537        comments: bool = True,
538        dialect: DialectType = None,
539    ):
540        import sqlglot
541        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
542
543        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
544        self.identify = identify
545        self.normalize = normalize
546        self.pad = pad
547        self._indent = indent
548        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
549        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
550        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
551        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
552        self.comments = comments
553        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
554
555        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
556        self.normalize_functions = (
557            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
558        )
559
560        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
561        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
562            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
563        )
564        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
565            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
566        )
TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtract'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtractScalar'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Timestamp'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>, <Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>, <Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
568    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
569        """
570        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
571
572        Args:
573            expression: The syntax tree.
574            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
575                it is safer to copy.
576
577        Returns:
578            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
579        """
580        if copy:
581            expression = expression.copy()
582
583        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
584
585        self.unsupported_messages = []
586        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
587
588        if self.pretty:
589            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
590
591        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
592            return sql
593
594        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
595            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
596                logger.warning(msg)
597        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
598            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
599
600        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
602    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
603        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
604        if (
605            not expression.parent
606            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
607            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
608        ):
609            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
610
611            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
612
613        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
614            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
615
616            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
617
618        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
620    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
621        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
622            raise UnsupportedError(message)
623        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
625    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
626        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
628    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
629        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
631    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
632        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
633        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
634        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
636    def maybe_comment(
637        self,
638        sql: str,
639        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
640        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
641    ) -> str:
642        comments = (
643            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
644            if self.comments
645            else None
646        )
647
648        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
649            return sql
650
651        comments_sql = " ".join(
652            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
653        )
654
655        if not comments_sql:
656            return sql
657
658        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
659            return (
660                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
661                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
662                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
663            )
664
665        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
667    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
668        this_sql = self.indent(
669            (
670                self.sql(expression)
671                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
672                else self.sql(expression, "this")
673            ),
674            level=1,
675            pad=0,
676        )
677        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
679    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
680        original = self.identify
681        self.identify = False
682        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
683        self.identify = original
684        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
686    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
687        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
688            return name.upper()
689        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
690            return name.lower()
691        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
693    def indent(
694        self,
695        sql: str,
696        level: int = 0,
697        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
698        skip_first: bool = False,
699        skip_last: bool = False,
700    ) -> str:
701        if not self.pretty:
702            return sql
703
704        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
705        lines = sql.split("\n")
706
707        return "\n".join(
708            (
709                line
710                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
711                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
712            )
713            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
714        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
716    def sql(
717        self,
718        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
719        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
720        comment: bool = True,
721    ) -> str:
722        if not expression:
723            return ""
724
725        if isinstance(expression, str):
726            return expression
727
728        if key:
729            value = expression.args.get(key)
730            if value:
731                return self.sql(value)
732            return ""
733
734        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
735
736        if callable(transform):
737            sql = transform(self, expression)
738        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
739            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
740
741            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
742                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
743            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
744                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
745            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
746                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
747            else:
748                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
749        else:
750            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
751
752        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
754    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
755        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
756        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
757        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
759    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
760        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
761        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
762        options = expression.args.get("options")
763        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
764        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
765        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
766        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
767        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
769    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
770        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
771            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
772        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
773        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
775    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
776        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
777
778        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
779            join_mark = ""
780            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
781
782        column = ".".join(
783            self.sql(part)
784            for part in (
785                expression.args.get("catalog"),
786                expression.args.get("db"),
787                expression.args.get("table"),
788                expression.args.get("this"),
789            )
790            if part
791        )
792
793        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
795    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
796        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
797        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
798        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
799        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
801    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
802        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
803        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
804        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
805        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
806        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
807        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
808        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
809        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
810
811        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
812            kind = ""
813
814        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
816    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
817        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
818        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
819        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
821    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
822        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
823        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
824            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
825        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
826            persisted = " PERSISTED"
827        else:
828            persisted = ""
829        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
831    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
832        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
834    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
835        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
836            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
837        else:
838            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
839
840        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
842    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
843        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
844    ) -> str:
845        this = ""
846        if expression.this is not None:
847            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
848            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
849
850        start = expression.args.get("start")
851        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
852        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
853        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
854        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
855        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
856        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
857        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
858        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
859        cycle_sql = ""
860
861        if cycle is not None:
862            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
863            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
864
865        sequence_opts = ""
866        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
867            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
868            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
869
870        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
871        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
872
873        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
875    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
876        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
877    ) -> str:
878        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
879        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
880        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
882    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
883        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
884    ) -> str:
885        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
887    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
888        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
890    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
891        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
893    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
894        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
895        if desc is not None:
896            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
897        return "PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
899    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
900        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
901        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
902        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
903        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
904        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
905        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
906        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
908    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
909        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
911    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
912        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
913        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
914        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
915
916        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
917
918        properties_sql = ""
919        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
920            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
921        ):
922            properties_sql = self.sql(
923                exp.Properties(
924                    expressions=[
925                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
926                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
927                    ]
928                )
929            )
930
931        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
932        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
933
934        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
935        if expression_sql:
936            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
937
938            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
939                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
940                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
941                        exp.Properties(
942                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
943                        ),
944                        wrapped=False,
945                    )
946                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
947                else:
948                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
949
950        postindex_props_sql = ""
951        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
952            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
953                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
954                wrapped=False,
955                prefix=" ",
956            )
957
958        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
959        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
960        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
961
962        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
963        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
964
965        postcreate_props_sql = ""
966        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
967            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
968                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
969                sep=" ",
970                prefix=" ",
971                wrapped=False,
972            )
973
974        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
975
976        postexpression_props_sql = ""
977        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
978            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
979                exp.Properties(
980                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
981                ),
982                sep=" ",
983                prefix=" ",
984                wrapped=False,
985            )
986
987        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
988        no_schema_binding = (
989            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
990        )
991
992        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
993        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
994
995        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
996        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str:
 998    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
 999        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1000        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1001        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1002        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1003        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1004        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1005        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1006        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1007        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1008        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1009
1010        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1011        if cache is None:
1012            cache_str = ""
1013        elif cache is True:
1014            cache_str = " CACHE"
1015        else:
1016            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1017
1018        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1019        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1020
1021        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
1023    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1024        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1025        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1026        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1027        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
1029    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1030        style = expression.args.get("style")
1031        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1032        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
1034    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1035        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1036        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1038    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1039        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1040        if with_:
1041            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1042        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
1044    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1045        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1046        recursive = (
1047            "RECURSIVE "
1048            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1049            else ""
1050        )
1051
1052        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
1054    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1055        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1056
1057        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1058        if materialized is False:
1059            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1060        elif materialized:
1061            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1062
1063        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
1065    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1066        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1067        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1068        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1069
1070        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1071            columns = ""
1072            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1073
1074        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1075            alias = "_t"
1076
1077        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
1079    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1080        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1081        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1082            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1083        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
1085    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1086        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1087        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1088            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1089        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
1091    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1092        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1093        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1094            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1095        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
1097    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1098        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1099        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1100
1101        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1102            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1103            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1104
1105        if escape:
1106            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1107        else:
1108            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1109
1110        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1111        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
1113    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1114        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1115        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1117    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1118        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1119        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1120        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1121        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
1123    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1124        type_value = expression.this
1125
1126        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1127            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1128        else:
1129            type_sql = (
1130                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1131                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1132                else type_value
1133            )
1134
1135        nested = ""
1136        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1137        values = ""
1138
1139        if interior:
1140            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1141                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1142                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1143                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1144                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1145                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1146            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1147                nested = f" {interior}"
1148            else:
1149                nested = f"({interior})"
1150
1151        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1152        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1153            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1154            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1155        ):
1156            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1157
1158        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1160    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1161        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1162        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1163        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1164        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1166    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1167        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1168        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1169        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1170        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1171        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1172        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1173        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1174        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1175        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1176        if self.RETURNING_END:
1177            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1178        else:
1179            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1180        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1182    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1183        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1184        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1185        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1186        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1187        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1188        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1189        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1190        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1191        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1192        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1193        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1195    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1196        return self.set_operations(expression)
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1198    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1199        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1201    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1202        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1203        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1204        count = expression.args.get("count")
1205        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1206        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1207            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1208        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1209        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1211    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1212        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1213            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1214            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1215            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1216
1217        agg = expression.this
1218        agg_arg = agg.this
1219        cond = expression.expression.this
1220        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1221        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1223    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1224        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1225            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1226            return ""
1227
1228        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str:
1230    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1231        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1232        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1233        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1234        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1235        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1236        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1237        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1238        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1239        if include:
1240            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1241        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1242        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1243        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1244        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1245
1246        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1248    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1249        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1250        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1251        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1252        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1253        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1254        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1255        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1256
1257        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1258
1259        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1260        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1262    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1263        text = expression.name
1264        lower = text.lower()
1265        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1266        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1267        if (
1268            expression.quoted
1269            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1270            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1271            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1272        ):
1273            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1274        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1276    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1277        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1278        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1279        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1280        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1281        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1283    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1284        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1285        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1287    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1288        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1290    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1291        root_properties = []
1292        with_properties = []
1293
1294        for p in expression.expressions:
1295            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1296            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1297                with_properties.append(p)
1298            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1299                root_properties.append(p)
1300
1301        return self.root_properties(
1302            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1303        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1305    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1306        if properties.expressions:
1307            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1308        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1310    def properties(
1311        self,
1312        properties: exp.Properties,
1313        prefix: str = "",
1314        sep: str = ", ",
1315        suffix: str = "",
1316        wrapped: bool = True,
1317    ) -> str:
1318        if properties.expressions:
1319            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1320            if expressions:
1321                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1322                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1323        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1325    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1326        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1328    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1329        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1330        for p in properties.expressions:
1331            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1332            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1333                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1334            else:
1335                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1336
1337        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1339    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1340        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1341            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1342        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1344    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1345        property_cls = expression.__class__
1346        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1347            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1348
1349        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1350        if not property_name:
1351            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1352
1353        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1355    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1356        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1357            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1358            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1359
1360            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1361            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1362                like = f"({like})"
1363
1364            return like
1365
1366        if expression.expressions:
1367            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1368
1369        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1370        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1372    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1373        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1374        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1375        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1377    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1378        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1379        local = expression.args.get("local")
1380        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1381        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1382        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1383        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1384        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1386    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1387        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1388        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1389        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1391    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1392        if expression.args.get("default"):
1393            property = "DEFAULT"
1394        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1395            property = "ON"
1396        else:
1397            property = "OFF"
1398        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1400    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1401        if expression.args.get("no"):
1402            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1403        if expression.args.get("default"):
1404            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1405
1406        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1407        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1409    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1410        default = expression.args.get("default")
1411        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1412        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1413        if default or minimum or maximum:
1414            if default:
1415                prop = "DEFAULT"
1416            elif minimum:
1417                prop = "MINIMUM"
1418            else:
1419                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1420            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1421        units = expression.args.get("units")
1422        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1423        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1425    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1426        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1427        always = expression.args.get("always")
1428        default = expression.args.get("default")
1429        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1430        never = expression.args.get("never")
1431
1432        if autotemp is not None:
1433            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1434        elif always:
1435            prop = "ALWAYS"
1436        elif default:
1437            prop = "DEFAULT"
1438        elif manual:
1439            prop = "MANUAL"
1440        elif never:
1441            prop = "NEVER"
1442        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1444    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1445        no = expression.args.get("no")
1446        no = " NO" if no else ""
1447        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1448        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1449        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1450        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1451        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1453    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1454        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1455            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1456        if expression.this:
1457            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1458            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1459            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1460
1461        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1462        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1463        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1465    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1466        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1467
1468        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1469        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1470            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1471        else:
1472            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1473
1474        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1476    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1477        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1478        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1479        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1480        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1481        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1482        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1483        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1485    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1486        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1487        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1488        statistics_sql = ""
1489        if statistics is not None:
1490            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1491        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1493    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1494        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1495
1496        if expression.this:
1497            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1498            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1499
1500            if expression.expression:
1501                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1502                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1503
1504            sql = f"{sql})"
1505
1506        return f"{sql})"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1508    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1509        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1510        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1511
1512        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1513            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1514        else:
1515            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1516
1517        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1518        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1519        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1520        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1521        if is_function:
1522            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1523        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1524
1525        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1526        partition_sql = (
1527            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1528        )
1529        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1530        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1531        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1532        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1533        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1534        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1535        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1536
1537        if self.RETURNING_END:
1538            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1539        else:
1540            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1541
1542        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1543        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1545    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1546        return self.set_operations(expression)
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1548    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1549        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1551    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1552        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1554    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1555        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1556        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1557        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1558        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1559        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1561    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1562        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1564    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1565        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1567    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1568        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1569
1570        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1571        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1572
1573        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1574        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1575        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1576
1577        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1578        if expressions:
1579            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1580            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1581
1582        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1584    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1585        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1587    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1588        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1589        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1590        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1591        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1592        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1593        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1594        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1595        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1596        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1597        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1598        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1599        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1600        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1602    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1603        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1605    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1606        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1607        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1608        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1609        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1611    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1612        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1613        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1614        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1615        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str:
1617    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1618        return ".".join(
1619            self.sql(part)
1620            for part in (
1621                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1622                expression.args.get("db"),
1623                expression.args.get("this"),
1624            )
1625            if part is not None
1626        )
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1628    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1629        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1630        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1631        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1632        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1633        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1634        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1635        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1636        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1637        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1638        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1639        joins = self.indent(
1640            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1641        )
1642        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1643
1644        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1645        if file_format:
1646            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1647            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1648            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1649
1650        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1651        if ordinality:
1652            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1653            alias = ""
1654
1655        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1656        if when:
1657            table = f"{table} {when}"
1658
1659        return f"{only}{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, sep: str = ' AS ', tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1661    def tablesample_sql(
1662        self,
1663        expression: exp.TableSample,
1664        sep: str = " AS ",
1665        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1666    ) -> str:
1667        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1668            table = expression.this.copy()
1669            table.set("alias", None)
1670            this = self.sql(table)
1671            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1672        else:
1673            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1674            alias = ""
1675
1676        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1677        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1678        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1679        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1680        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1681        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1682        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1683        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1684        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1685
1686        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1687        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1688            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1689
1690        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1691        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1692            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1693
1694        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1695        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1696            expr = f"({expr})"
1697
1698        return (
1699            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1700        )
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1702    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1703        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1704
1705        if expression.this:
1706            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1707            if not expressions:
1708                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1709
1710            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1711            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1712            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1713            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1714            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1715
1716        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1717        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1718        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1719        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1720        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1721        if include_nulls is not None:
1722            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1723        else:
1724            nulls = ""
1725        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1727    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1728        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1729        kind = expression.text("kind")
1730        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1731        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1733    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1734        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1736    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1737        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1738        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1739        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1740        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1741        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1742        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1743        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1744        if self.RETURNING_END:
1745            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1746        else:
1747            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1748        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1749        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1751    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1752        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1753
1754        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1755        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1756            args = self.expressions(expression)
1757            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1758            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1759            values = (
1760                f"({values})"
1761                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1762                else values
1763            )
1764            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1765
1766        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1767        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1768        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1769
1770        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1771
1772        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1773            row = tup.expressions
1774
1775            if i == 0 and column_names:
1776                row = [
1777                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1778                ]
1779
1780            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1781
1782        if self.pretty:
1783            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1784            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1785            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1786            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1787            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1788
1789        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1790        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1791        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1793    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1794        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1796    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1797        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1798        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1799        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1801    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1802        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1804    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1805        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1806
1807        if expression.args.get("all"):
1808            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1809
1810        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1811        grouping_sets = (
1812            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1813        )
1814
1815        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1816        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1817            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1818        else:
1819            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1820            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1821
1822        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1823        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1824            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1825        else:
1826            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1827            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1828
1829        groupings = csv(
1830            grouping_sets,
1831            cube_sql,
1832            rollup_sql,
1833            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1834            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1835        )
1836
1837        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1838            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1839
1840        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1842    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1843        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1844        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1846    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1847        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1848        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1849        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1850        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1851        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1852        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1854    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1855        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1857    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1858        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1859            side = None
1860        else:
1861            side = expression.side
1862
1863        op_sql = " ".join(
1864            op
1865            for op in (
1866                expression.method,
1867                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1868                side,
1869                expression.kind,
1870                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1871            )
1872            if op
1873        )
1874        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1875        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1876        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1877        using = expression.args.get("using")
1878
1879        if not on_sql and using:
1880            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1881
1882        this = expression.this
1883        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1884
1885        if on_sql:
1886            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1887            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1888            if using:
1889                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1890            else:
1891                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1892        elif not op_sql:
1893            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1894                return f" {this_sql}"
1895
1896            return f", {this_sql}"
1897
1898        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1899        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1901    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1902        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1903        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1904        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1906    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1907        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1908
1909        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1910        if cross_apply is True:
1911            op = "INNER JOIN "
1912        elif cross_apply is False:
1913            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1914        else:
1915            op = ""
1916
1917        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1919    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1920        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1921
1922        if expression.args.get("view"):
1923            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1924            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1925            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1926            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1927            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1928            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1929
1930        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1931        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1932        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1934    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1935        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1936
1937        args = [
1938            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1939            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1940            if e
1941        ]
1942
1943        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1944        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1945        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1946        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1947
1948        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1950    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1951        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1952        value = expression.expression
1953        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1954        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1955        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1956        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1958    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1959        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1960        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1961        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1962        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1963        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1964        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1965        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1966        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1968    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1969        expressions = (
1970            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1971        )
1972        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1973        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1975    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1976        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1978    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1979        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1980            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1981            return ""
1982
1983        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1984        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1985        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1986        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1987
1988        if wait is not None:
1989            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1990                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1991            else:
1992                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1993
1994        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1996    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1997        text = expression.this or ""
1998        if expression.is_string:
1999            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2000        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2002    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2003        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2004            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2005            text = "".join(
2006                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2007            )
2008
2009        if self.pretty:
2010            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
2011
2012        return text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
2014    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2015        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2016        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2017        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2018        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2019        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2020        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2021        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2022        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2023        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2024        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2025        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2027    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2028        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
2030    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2031        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2033    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2034        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2035        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2036        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2037        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2038        interpolated_values = [
2039            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2040            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2041        ]
2042        interpolate = (
2043            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2044        )
2045        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
2047    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2048        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2049        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2050        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2051        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2052        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2053        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2054        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
2056    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2057        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
2059    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2060        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
2062    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2063        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
2065    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2066        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2067        asc = not desc
2068
2069        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2070        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2071        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2072        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2073        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2074
2075        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2076
2077        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2078        nulls_sort_change = ""
2079        if nulls_first and (
2080            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2081        ):
2082            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2083        elif (
2084            nulls_last
2085            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2086            and not nulls_are_last
2087        ):
2088            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2089
2090        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2091        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2092            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2093            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2094                self.unsupported(
2095                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2096                )
2097                nulls_sort_change = ""
2098            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2099                if expression.this.is_int:
2100                    self.unsupported(
2101                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2102                    )
2103                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2104                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2105                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2106                nulls_sort_change = ""
2107
2108        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2109        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2110
2111        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2113    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2114        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2115        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2116        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2117        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2118        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2119        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2120        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2121        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2122        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2123        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2124        definition_sqls = [
2125            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2126            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2127        ]
2128        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2129        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2130        body = "".join(
2131            (
2132                partition,
2133                order,
2134                measures,
2135                rows,
2136                after,
2137                pattern,
2138                define,
2139            )
2140        )
2141        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2142        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2143        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2145    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2146        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2147
2148        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2149            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2150        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2151            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2152
2153        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2154        if options:
2155            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2156
2157        return csv(
2158            *sqls,
2159            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2160            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2161            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2162            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2163            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2164            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2165            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2166            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2167            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2168            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2169            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2170            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2171            options,
2172            sep="",
2173        )
def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str:
2175    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2176        return ""
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2178    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2179        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2180    ) -> t.List[str]:
2181        return [
2182            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2183            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2184        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2186    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2187        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2188        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2189        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2191    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2192        into = expression.args.get("into")
2193        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2194            into.pop()
2195
2196        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2197        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2198        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2199        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2200
2201        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2202        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2203            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2204            limit.pop()
2205        else:
2206            top = ""
2207
2208        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2209
2210        if kind:
2211            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2212                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2213            else:
2214                if kind == "STRUCT":
2215                    expressions = self.expressions(
2216                        sqls=[
2217                            self.sql(
2218                                exp.Struct(
2219                                    expressions=[
2220                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2221                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2222                                        else e
2223                                        for e in expression.expressions
2224                                    ]
2225                                )
2226                            )
2227                        ]
2228                    )
2229                kind = ""
2230
2231        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2232        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2233        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2234        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2235        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2236            expression,
2237            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2238            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2239            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2240        )
2241
2242        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2243
2244        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2245            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2246                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2247            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2248                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2249            else:
2250                table_kind = ""
2251            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2252
2253        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2255    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2256        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2257        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2258        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2260    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2261        if expression.expressions:
2262            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2263        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2265    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2266        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2267        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2268        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2269        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2270        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2272    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2273        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2274        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2276    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2277        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2278        kind = expression.text("kind")
2279        if kind:
2280            kind = f"{kind}."
2281        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2283    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2284        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2286    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2287        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2288        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2289
2290        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2291        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2292
2293        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2294        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2296    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2297        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2298        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2300    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2301        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2302        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2303
2304        while stack:
2305            node = stack.pop()
2306
2307            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2308                stack.append(node.expression)
2309                stack.append(
2310                    self.maybe_comment(
2311                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2312                        expression=node.this,
2313                        comments=node.comments,
2314                    )
2315                )
2316                stack.append(node.this)
2317            else:
2318                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2319
2320        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2321        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2322        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2324    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2325        return self.set_operations(expression)
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2327    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2328        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2329        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2330        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2331        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2333    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2334        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2335
2336        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2337        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2338
2339        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2340            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2341                alias.append("columns", offset)
2342
2343        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2344            columns = alias.columns
2345            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2346        else:
2347            alias = self.sql(alias)
2348
2349        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2350        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2351            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2352        else:
2353            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2354                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2355            elif offset:
2356                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2357            else:
2358                suffix = alias
2359
2360        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str:
2362    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2363        return ""
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2365    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2366        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2367        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2369    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2370        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2371        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2372        order = expression.args.get("order")
2373        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2374        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2375        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2376        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2377
2378        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2379
2380        first = expression.args.get("first")
2381        if first is None:
2382            first = ""
2383        else:
2384            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2385
2386        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2387            return f"{this} {alias}"
2388
2389        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2390        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2392    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2393        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2394        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2396    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2397        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2398        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2399        end = (
2400            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2401            or "CURRENT ROW"
2402        )
2403        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2405    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2406        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2407        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2408        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2410    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2411        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2412        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2413        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2414        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2416    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2417        expressions = apply_index_offset(
2418            expression.this,
2419            expression.expressions,
2420            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2421        )
2422        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2423        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2425    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2426        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2428    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2429        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2430        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2431            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2432                this = self.wrap(this)
2433            return f"ANY{this}"
2434        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2436    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2437        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2439    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2440        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2441        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2442
2443        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2444            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2445            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2446
2447        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2448
2449        if default:
2450            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2451
2452        statements.append("END")
2453
2454        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2455            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2456
2457        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2459    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2460        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2461        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2462        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2464    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2465        order = expression.args.get("order")
2466        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2467        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2469    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2470        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2471        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2472        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2474    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2475        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2476
2477        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2478            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2479        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2480            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2481        else:
2482            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2484    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2485        args = expression.expressions
2486        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2487            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2488
2489        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2490            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
2491
2492        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2493            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2494
2495        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2497    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2498        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2499
2500        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2501        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2502            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2503
2504        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2506    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2507        return self.func(
2508            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2509        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2511    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2512        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2513        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2515    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2516        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2517        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2518        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2519        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2520        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2521        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2522        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2523        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2525    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2526        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2527        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2528        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2529        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2531    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2532        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2534    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2535        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2536        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2537        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2539    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2540        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str:
2542    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2543        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2544        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2546    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2547        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2548            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2549            if not callable(transform):
2550                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2551                return ""
2552
2553            return transform(self, expression)
2554
2555        if isinstance(expression, int):
2556            return str(expression)
2557
2558        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2559            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2560            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2561        else:
2562            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2563            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2564
2565        return escaped
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2567    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2568        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2570    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2571        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2572        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2573
2574        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2575        if unique_keys is not None:
2576            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2577        else:
2578            unique_keys = ""
2579
2580        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2581        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2582        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2583        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2584
2585        return self.func(
2586            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2587            *expression.expressions,
2588            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2589        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2591    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2592        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2594    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2595        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2596        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2597        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2598        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2599        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2600        return self.func(
2601            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2602        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2604    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2605        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2606        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2607        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2608        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2609        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2610        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2611        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2612        return self.func(
2613            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2614            this,
2615            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2616        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2618    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2619        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2620        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2621        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2622
2623        if nested_schema:
2624            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2625
2626        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2627        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2628        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2629        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2631    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2632        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2634    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2635        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2636        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2637        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2638        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2639        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2640        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2641        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2642        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2643        return self.func(
2644            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2645        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2647    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2648        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2649        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2650        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2651        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2652        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2653        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2655    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2656        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2657        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2658        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2659        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2660        with_ = (
2661            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2662            if expressions
2663            else ""
2664        )
2665        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2667    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2668        query = expression.args.get("query")
2669        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2670        field = expression.args.get("field")
2671        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2672
2673        if query:
2674            in_sql = self.wrap(self.sql(query))
2675        elif unnest:
2676            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2677        elif field:
2678            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2679        else:
2680            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2681
2682        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2684    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2685        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2687    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2688        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2689        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2690            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2691        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2692
2693        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2694            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2695            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2696
2697        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2698        if this:
2699            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2700            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2701
2702        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2704    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2705        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2707    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2708        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2709        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2710        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2711        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2712        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2713        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2715    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2716        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2718    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2719        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2720        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2722    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2723        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2724        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2725        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2726        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2728    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2729        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2731    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2732        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2733        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2734        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
2736    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2737        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2738        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2739
2740        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2741            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2742        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2743            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2744
2745        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2747    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2748        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2750    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2751        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2752        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2753        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2755    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2756        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2757        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2758        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2760    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2761        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2762        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2763        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2765    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2766        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2768    def and_sql(
2769        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2770    ) -> str:
2771        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2773    def or_sql(
2774        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2775    ) -> str:
2776        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2778    def xor_sql(
2779        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2780    ) -> str:
2781        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2783    def connector_sql(
2784        self,
2785        expression: exp.Connector,
2786        op: str,
2787        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2788    ) -> str:
2789        if stack is not None:
2790            if expression.expressions:
2791                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2792            else:
2793                stack.append(expression.right)
2794                if expression.comments:
2795                    for comment in expression.comments:
2796                        op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2797                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2798            return op
2799
2800        stack = [expression]
2801        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2802        ops = set()
2803
2804        while stack:
2805            node = stack.pop()
2806            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2807                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2808            else:
2809                sql = self.sql(node)
2810                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2811                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2812                else:
2813                    sqls.append(sql)
2814
2815        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2816        return sep.join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2818    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2819        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2821    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2822        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2824    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2825        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2827    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2828        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2830    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2831        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2833    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2834        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2836    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2837        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2838        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2839        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2840        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2841        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2842        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2843        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2845    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2846        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2847        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2849    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2850        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2852    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2853        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2854            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2855        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2857    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2858        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2860    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2861        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2862        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2863        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2864        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2865        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2867    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2868        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2869        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2870        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2871        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2872        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2873        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2874        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2875        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2876        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2878    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2879        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2880        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2881        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2882        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2883
2884        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2885            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2886
2887        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2889    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2890        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2892    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2893        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2894        if chain is not None:
2895            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2896
2897        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2899    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2900        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2901        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2902        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2904    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2905        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2906
2907        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2908        if dtype:
2909            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2910            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2911            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2912            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2913            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2914
2915        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2916        if default:
2917            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2918
2919        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2920        if comment:
2921            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2922
2923        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2924            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2925
2926        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2928    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2929        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2930            # Remove db from tables
2931            expression = expression.transform(
2932                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2933            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
2934        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2935        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
2937    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
2938        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2939        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
2940        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
2941        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2943    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2944        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2945
2946        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2947            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2948        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2949            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2950        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2951            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2952        else:
2953            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2954
2955        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2956        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2957        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2958        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
2959        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2961    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2962        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2963            return self.expressions(
2964                expression,
2965                key="actions",
2966                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2967            )
2968        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2970    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2971        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2972        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2973        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2975    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2976        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2978    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2979        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2980
2981        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
2982            case = exp.case()
2983            for arg in expression.expressions:
2984                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
2985            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
2986
2987        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2988
2989        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2990        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2991        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2993    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2994        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2996    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2997        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str:
2999    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3000        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3001        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3002        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3003        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
3005    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3006        return self.sql(
3007            exp.Cast(
3008                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3009                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3010            )
3011        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
3013    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3014        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3015            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
3016        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
3018    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3019        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3020
3021        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3022            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3023
3024        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3025            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3026                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3027
3028        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3029            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3030                return self.sql(
3031                    exp.cast(
3032                        l / r,
3033                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3034                    )
3035                )
3036
3037        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
3039    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3040        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
3042    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3043        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
3045    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3046        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
3048    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3049        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3051    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3052        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
3054    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3055        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
3057    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3058        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
3060    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3061        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
3063    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3064        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
3066    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3067        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
3069    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3070        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
3072    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3073        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3074            return self.sql(
3075                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3076            )
3077        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
3079    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3080        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
3082    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3083        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
3085    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3086        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
3088    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3089        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
3091    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3092        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
3094    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3095        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
3097    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3098        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
3100    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3101        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3103    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3104        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3106    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3107        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
3109    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3110        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
3112    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3113        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
3115    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3116        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
3118    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3119        this = expression.this
3120        expr = expression.expression
3121
3122        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3123            this, expr = expr, this
3124        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3125            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3126                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3127
3128            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3129
3130        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
3132    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3133        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3134        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3135        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3136        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3137        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3139    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3140        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3141        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
3143    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3144        args = []
3145
3146        for key in expression.arg_types:
3147            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3148
3149            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3150                for value in arg_value:
3151                    args.append(value)
3152            elif arg_value is not None:
3153                args.append(arg_value)
3154
3155        if self.normalize_functions:
3156            name = expression.sql_name()
3157        else:
3158            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3159
3160        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
3162    def func(
3163        self,
3164        name: str,
3165        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3166        prefix: str = "(",
3167        suffix: str = ")",
3168    ) -> str:
3169        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
3171    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3172        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3173        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
3174            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3175        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
3177    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
3178        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]:
3180    def format_time(
3181        self,
3182        expression: exp.Expression,
3183        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3184        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3185    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3186        return format_time(
3187            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3188            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3189            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3190        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
3192    def expressions(
3193        self,
3194        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3195        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3196        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3197        flat: bool = False,
3198        indent: bool = True,
3199        skip_first: bool = False,
3200        sep: str = ", ",
3201        prefix: str = "",
3202    ) -> str:
3203        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3204
3205        if not expressions:
3206            return ""
3207
3208        if flat:
3209            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3210
3211        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3212
3213        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3214        if self.pretty:
3215            if self.leading_comma:
3216                pad = " " * len(sep)
3217            else:
3218                stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3219
3220        result_sqls = []
3221        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3222            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3223            if not sql:
3224                continue
3225
3226            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3227
3228            if self.pretty:
3229                if self.leading_comma:
3230                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3231                else:
3232                    result_sqls.append(
3233                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3234                    )
3235            else:
3236                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3237
3238        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
3239        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3241    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3242        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3243        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3244        if flat:
3245            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3246        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3248    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3249        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3250        if not property_name:
3251            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3252        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3254    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3255        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3257    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3258        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3260    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3261        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3262        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3263        expressions = (
3264            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3265        )
3266        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3268    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3269        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3270        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3271        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3273    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3274        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3276    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3277        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3278        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3279        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3280        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3281
3282        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3283        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3284            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
3285            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
3286                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
3287        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3288            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3289                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3290            else:
3291                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3292        else:
3293            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3294        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3296    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3297        table = expression.this
3298        table_alias = ""
3299
3300        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3301        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3302            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3303            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3304
3305        this = self.sql(table)
3306        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3307        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3308        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3309
3310        return self.prepend_ctes(
3311            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3312        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3314    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3315        if expression.args.get("format"):
3316            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3317
3318        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str:
3320    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3321        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3322            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3323            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "double"))
3324
3325        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3326        if not fmt:
3327            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3328            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "double"))
3329
3330        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3332    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3333        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3334        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3335        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3336        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3337        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3339    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3340        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3341        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3342        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3343        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3345    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3346        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3348    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3349        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3351    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3352        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3353        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3354        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3355        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3356        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3358    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3359        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3360        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3361
3362        if having:
3363            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3364
3365        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3367    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3368        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3369        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3370        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3371        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3372        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3373        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3374        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3375        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3376        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3377        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3378        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3379        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3380        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3382    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3383        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3384        if key_block_size:
3385            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3386
3387        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3388        if using:
3389            return f"USING {using}"
3390
3391        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3392        if parser:
3393            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3394
3395        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3396        if comment:
3397            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3398
3399        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3400        if visible is not None:
3401            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3402
3403        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3404        if engine_attr:
3405            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3406
3407        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3408        if secondary_engine_attr:
3409            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3410
3411        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3412        return ""
def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3414    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3415        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3416        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3418    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3419        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3420        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3421        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3422        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3423        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3424        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3425        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3426        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3427        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3428        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3429        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3431    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3432        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3433            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3434
3435        case = exp.Case().when(
3436            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3437            expression.args["true"],
3438            copy=False,
3439        )
3440        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3441        if else_cond:
3442            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3443
3444        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3446    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3447        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3448        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3449        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3450        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3451        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3452        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3454    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3455        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3457    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3458        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3460    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3461        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3462        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3463        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3464        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3465        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3466        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3468    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3469        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3470        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3471        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3473    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3474        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3475        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3476        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def operator_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Operator) -> str:
3478    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3479        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3481    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3482        arg = expression.this
3483        if not arg.type:
3484            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3485
3486            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3487
3488        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3489            return self.sql(arg)
3490
3491        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3492        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3494    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3495        this = expression.this
3496        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3497            return self.sql(this)
3498
3499        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "time"))
def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3501    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3502        this = expression.this
3503        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3504            return self.sql(this)
3505
3506        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "timestamp"))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3508    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3509        this = expression.this
3510        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3511
3512        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3513            return self.sql(
3514                exp.cast(exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]), "date")
3515            )
3516
3517        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3518            return self.sql(this)
3519
3520        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "date"))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3522    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3523        return self.sql(
3524            exp.func(
3525                "DATEDIFF",
3526                expression.this,
3527                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), "date"),
3528                "day",
3529            )
3530        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3532    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3533        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3534            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3535
3536        unit = expression.text("unit")
3537        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3538            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3539
3540        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str:
3542    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3543        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3544
3545        return self.func(
3546            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3547        )
def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str:
3549    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3550        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3551            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3552            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3553            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3554            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3555
3556        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3557
3558        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3559        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3560            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3561
3562        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def generateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3564    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3565        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3566        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str:
3568    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3569        expression.set(
3570            "expressions",
3571            [
3572                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3573                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3574                else e
3575                for e in expression.expressions
3576            ],
3577        )
3578
3579        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str:
3581    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3582        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3583        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3584
3585        return f"{low} TO {high}"
def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str:
3587    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3588        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3589        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3590
3591        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3592
3593        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3594        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3595
3596        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3597        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3598
3599        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3600        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3601
3602        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3603        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3604
3605        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str:
3609    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3610        to = expression.this
3611        value = expression.expression
3612        style = expression.args.get("style")
3613        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3614        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3615
3616        if not to or not value:
3617            return ""
3618
3619        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3620        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3621            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3622
3623        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3624        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3625
3626        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3627        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3628            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3629
3630            style_value = style.name
3631            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3632            if not converted_style:
3633                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3634
3635            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3636
3637            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3638                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3639            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3640                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3641            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3642                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3643            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3644                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3645
3646        if not transformed:
3647            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3648
3649        return self.sql(transformed)